ANCIENT HISTORY
Overview of
Ancient Indian History
Ancient Indian History is broadly divided
into three periods:
1.
Pre-Historic Period (Stone Ages)
2.
Proto-Historic Period (Indus Valley Civilization)
3.
Historic Period (Vedic Age, Rise of Mahajanapadas, Mauryan &
Post-Mauryan, Gupta, and Post-Gupta Eras)
1.
Pre-Historic Period (Stone Age)
This period is characterized by the use of
stone tools and is divided into three phases:
A. Palaeolithic Age
(Old Stone Age) (c. 2 Million BC – 10,000 BC)
·
Tools: Rough stone tools, unpolished, primarily hand-axes,
cleavers, choppers, and flakes.
·
Life: Hunter-gatherers, nomadic lifestyle. No knowledge of
agriculture or fire.
·
Important Sites: Soan Valley (Pakistan), Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Hungsi
(Karnataka).
·
Art: Bhimbetka caves show early cave paintings.
B. Mesolithic Age
(Middle Stone Age) (c. 10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)
·
Tools: Microliths (small, refined stone tools).
·
Life: Beginning of domestication of animals. Climate became
warmer.
·
Important Sites: Bagor (Rajasthan), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Sarai Nahar Rai
(Uttar Pradesh).
C. Neolithic Age (New
Stone Age) (c. 8,000 BC – 4,000 BC)
·
Tools: Polished and sharper stone tools.
·
Life: Invention
of agriculture (wheat, barley, rice). Domestication of animals.
Settled life began, leading to the first villages. Wheel discovered.
·
Important Sites: Mehrgarh (Pakistan - earliest), Burzahom (Kashmir - pit
dwellings), Chirand (Bihar).
A. Palaeolithic
Age (Old Stone Age) in India (c. 2.6 Million BC – 10,000 BC)
The term 'Palaeolithic' is derived from
the Greek words 'palaeo'
meaning old and 'lithos'
meaning stone. It is the cultural period of the Stone Age when
humans used primitive stone
tools.
Key Characteristics (Lifeway & Economy)
·
Hunter-Gatherers: People were entirely dependent on hunting wild animals and
gathering wild fruits, nuts, and roots for food. They did not practice
agriculture.
·
Nomadic Lifestyle: They were constantly on the move, living in temporary
settlements like caves and rock shelters, following the migration patterns of
animals and the seasonal availability of plants.
·
Habitation: Primarily lived in caves and rock shelters for
protection from weather and wild animals.
·
Discovery of Fire: Fire
was discovered and used in this period, likely towards the
later phases. It was used for warmth, cooking, and to scare away wild animals.
·
No Knowledge of: Agriculture, pottery, permanent housing, or metal tools.
Sub-divisions
of the Palaeolithic Age
The Palaeolithic Age in India is
systematically divided into three phases based on the evolution of tool
technology and climate.
1. Lower Palaeolithic Age (c. 2.6 Million BC – 100,000 BC)
This is the earliest and longest phase.
·
Tools:
o Type: Core Tools (tools
made from the core of the stone).
o Primary Tools: Hand-axes, Cleavers, Choppers, and
Pebble Tools.
o Material: Mostly made
of quartzite stone.
Hence, Palaeolithic men are also called 'Quartzite Men'.
o Technique: Soanian (in the
Sohan Valley) and Acheulian (in
peninsular India) are the two main tool-making traditions.
·
Climate & Environment: Coincided with
the Ice Age.
The climate was generally cold and dry.
·
Important Sites:
o Sohan Valley / Soan
Valley (Pakistan - Punjab region): Famous for Pebble Tool culture (Soanian culture).
o Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh):
Shows continuous habitation from Lower Palaeolithic to historic times.
Its Auditorium
Cave is one of the oldest Lower Palaeolithic sites.
o Singrauli Basin (Madhya Pradesh)
o Hunsgi Valley &
Kurnool Caves (Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh)
o Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu): One
of the oldest
Lower Palaeolithic sites in India, with evidence dating
back to 1.5 million years.
2. Middle Palaeolithic Age (c. 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC)
This phase shows a refinement in tool
technology.
·
Tools:
o Type: Flake Tools (tools
made from the flakes struck off from a stone core).
o Primary Tools: Scrapers, Borers, Points, and Blades.
Smaller and more diverse than Lower Palaeolithic tools.
o Material: Continued use of
quartzite, but also finer stones like chert and jasper.
·
Climate & Environment: The climate
became less harsh compared to the Lower Palaeolithic.
·
Important Sites:
o Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh)
o Narmada Valley (Madhya Pradesh)
o Nevasa (Maharashtra)
o Luni River Basin (Rajasthan)
o Didwana (Rajasthan)
o Bagor (Rajasthan) -
though it continues into the Mesolithic.
3. Upper Palaeolithic Age (c. 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC)
This phase is marked by the appearance
of Homo sapiens and
significant advancements in tool-making and artistic expression.
·
Tools:
o Type: Blade Tools and Burin Tools. Tools
became even smaller, thinner, and more sophisticated.
o Primary Tools: Parallel-sided Blades, Penknives,
Borers, and Burins (chisel-like tools for working on bone
and wood).
o Material: Used a wider
variety of fine-grained materials like chert, jasper, and chalcedony.
·
Climate & Environment: The last phase of
the Ice Age. The climate was cold and dry.
·
Art & Culture: This period witnesses the beginning of art.
o Ostrich eggshell beads have been found,
indicating the development of ornamentation.
o The earliest paintings in
the rock shelters of Bhimbetka belong to this period.
·
Important Sites:
o Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh):
Famous for its rock paintings from this era.
o Patne (Maharashtra):
Famous for discovery of ostrich
eggshell beads.
o Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh)
o Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh):
Evidence of use of bone tools.
o Jwalapuram (Andhra Pradesh):
Shows continuity of tool traditions.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Feature |
Lower Palaeolithic |
Middle Palaeolithic |
Upper Palaeolithic |
|
Time Period |
2.6 Mya - 100,000 BC |
100,000 BC - 40,000 BC |
40,000 BC - 10,000 BC |
|
Climate |
Ice Age (Pleistocene), Cold & Dry |
Less Harsh |
Last phase of Ice Age |
|
Tool Type |
Core Tools |
Flake Tools |
Blade & Burin
Tools |
|
Main Tools |
Hand-axes, Cleavers, Choppers |
Scrapers, Borers, Points |
Blades, Penknives, Burins |
|
Material |
Quartzite |
Quartzite, Chert, Jasper |
Chert, Jasper, Chalcedony |
|
Lifeway |
Hunter-Gatherer, Nomadic |
Hunter-Gatherer, Nomadic |
Hunter-Gatherer, Nomadic |
|
Key Sites |
Sohan Valley, Bhimbetka, Attirampakkam |
Bhimbetka, Narmada Valley, Nevasa |
Bhimbetka (Art), Patne (Beads),
Kurnool |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
The term 'Palaeolithic' was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in
1865.
2.
Robert Bruce Foote is known as the "Father of Indian Prehistory".
He discovered the first Palaeolithic tool (a hand-axe) at Pallavaram near
Chennai in 1863.
3.
Bhimbetka is the most important site as it contains evidence from
the Lower
Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic period and has over 500
rock shelters with paintings.
4.
No Pottery: A key distinguishing feature from the later Neolithic age
is the complete
absence of pottery.
5.
Sequence of Tool Technology: Remember the
progression: Core
Tools (Lower) → Flake Tools (Middle) → Blade Tools (Upper).
6.
Recent Findings: The site of Attirampakkam
(Tamil Nadu) has pushed back the date of the Lower
Palaeolithic in India to around 1.5 million years ago, making it a crucial site
for UPSC.
B. Mesolithic
Age (Middle Stone Age) in India (c. 10,000 BC – 4,000 BC)
The Mesolithic Age acts as a transitional
phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. It is characterized by environmental changes and
significant technological
advancements, most notably the development of microliths.
Note on Timeline: While often cited
as 10,000 BC - 8,000 BC, the Mesolithic culture in India persisted in many
regions until around 4,000 BC. The dates are not uniform across the
subcontinent.
Key
Characteristics & Major Developments
1. Technology: The Microlithic Revolution
·
Definition: The most defining feature of the Mesolithic period is the
use of microliths.
These are small, miniature stone tools, typically 1 to 5 cm long.
·
Shape & Function: They were geometric in shape
(triangles, lunates, trapezes, rectangles) and were fitted into grooves in wooden or bone
handles to create composite tools like:
o Spears and Arrows (for hunting)
o Sickles (for harvesting)
o Knives and Daggers
·
Material: These tools were made from fine-grained materials
like chert,
jasper, chalcedony, and agate.
2. Climate and Environment
·
End of the Ice Age: This period began with the end of
the last Ice Age (Pleistocene epoch) and the beginning of the warmer Holocene
epoch.
·
Warmer and Humid Climate: The climate became significantly
warmer, leading to:
o The spread of
grasslands and forests.
o The extinction of large
Pleistocene animals like mammoths and rhinoceros.
o The emergence of
smaller, modern animal species (deer, boar, bison, etc.).
3. Economy and Lifestyle
·
Intensified Hunting and Gathering: While still
hunter-gatherers, Mesolithic people were more efficient. The bow and arrow,
tipped with microliths, became the primary weapon.
·
Beginning of Domestication: This is a crucial
development. There is evidence for the domestication of animals in this
period, such as dogs,
cattle, sheep, and goats. This marks the first step towards a
settled life.
·
Fishing: Became a major economic activity, evidenced by the finding
of bone hooks and harpoons at sites.
4. Habitation
·
People continued to live in caves and rock shelters but also
began to create temporary
open-air settlements near water sources (rivers and
lakes).
5. Art and Culture: The First Visual Narratives
The Mesolithic period is renowned for
its rock paintings,
especially at Bhimbetka.
·
Themes:
o Group Hunting: Scenes showing
hunters with bows, arrows, and spears chasing animals.
o Social Life: Scenes of
dancing, community gatherings, and family life.
o Animals: Depictions of
deer, bison, elephants, boars, and reptiles.
·
Style & Colour:
o The paintings are
smaller and more schematic than the Palaeolithic ones.
o The most common colour
is red,
obtained from hematite (geru). White and green were also occasionally used.
·
Significance: These paintings provide invaluable insight into the social
life, religious beliefs, and economic activities of Mesolithic people.
Important
Mesolithic Sites in India
1. Bagor (Rajasthan)
·
Located on the river Kothari, it is the largest and best-documented
Mesolithic site in India.
·
It shows a clear transition from the Mesolithic to the
Chalcolithic period.
·
Evidence of domestication
of sheep and goats.
2. Langhnaj (Gujarat)
·
Located on the river Sabarmati.
·
Evidence of burial
practices (human skeletons buried with microliths).
·
Bones of wild animals like rhinoceros and blackbuck were found.
3. Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh)
·
Shows continuity from the Palaeolithic period.
·
Famous for over 500 rock shelters with paintings
belonging to the Mesolithic period and later.
·
The Mesolithic paintings here are world-renowned for their
variety and detail.
4. Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh)
·
Evidence of what is possibly the earliest domestication of animals in
India, including dogs, cattle, sheep, and goats.
5. Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar Pradesh)
·
An important site in the Ganga Valley.
·
Evidence of human
burials with grave goods.
6. Other Significant Sites:
·
Tilwara (Rajasthan)
·
Lekhahia (Uttar Pradesh)
·
Hiran Valley (Gujarat)
·
Chopani Mando (Belan Valley, UP) - shows a
transition from Mesolithic to Neolithic.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Feature |
Details |
|
Time Period |
c. 10,000 BC –
4,000 BC (Dates
vary regionally) |
|
Climate |
Warmer and Humid (Holocene Epoch) |
|
Tool Technology |
Microliths (small,
geometric stone tools) |
|
Tools |
Composite tools - Arrows, Spears, Sickles |
|
Economy |
Hunter-Gatherer but
with beginning
of Animal Domestication |
|
Habitation |
Caves, Rock Shelters, and Open-air sites |
|
Key Developments |
1. Invention of Microliths |
|
Important Sites |
Bagor (Largest),
Langhnaj, Bhimbetka (Art), Adamgarh (Domestication), Sarai Nahar Rai |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Microliths are the Hallmark: The Mesolithic
age is synonymous with microlithic
technology.
2.
Transitional Phase: It bridges the gap between the
nomadic hunting of the Palaeolithic and the settled agriculture of the
Neolithic.
3.
First Domestication: The domestication of animals began
here, a revolutionary step in human history.
4.
Bhimbetka Paintings: For questions on art and culture,
Bhimbetka's Mesolithic paintings are extremely important. Remember the themes (group hunting, dancing) and
the dominant red
colour.
5.
Site-Specific Specialties:
o Bagor -> Largest
site.
o Adamgarh/Bagor -> Early
domestication.
o Langhnaj/Sarai Nahar
Rai ->
Burial practices.
o Bhimbetka -> Rock
paintings.
6.
Chronology: Remember the sequence: Palaeolithic (Core/Flake/Blade tools)
→ Mesolithic (Microliths) → Neolithic (Polished tools & Agriculture).
C. Neolithic
Age (New Stone Age) in India (c. 8000 BC – 4000 BC)
The Neolithic Age marks a revolutionary
turning point in human history, often termed the "Neolithic Revolution." It
represents the transition from a nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a
settled, food-producing economy. This period laid the foundation for the rise
of civilizations.
Note on Timeline: The Neolithic age
did not appear simultaneously across India. It began earliest in Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan) around
7000 BC and spread to other parts of the subcontinent,
lasting until around 1000 BC in some Northeastern regions.
Key Characteristics
& Major Developments (The "Firsts")
1. Beginning of Agriculture: The Most Important Change
·
Humans learned to produce their
own food rather than just extract it.
·
Early Crops:
o Wheat and Barley (in Northwestern
India, e.g., Mehrgarh)
o Rice (in Eastern
India, e.g., Koldihwa; this is one of the earliest evidences of rice cultivation in the world)
o Millets (in Southern
India, e.g., Sangana Kalleru)
o Pulses (like lentils,
green gram, black gram)
2. Domestication of Animals
·
Domestication became systematic and widespread. People
domesticated cattle,
sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs. These animals provided meat,
milk, leather, and, crucially, labour.
3. Sedentary Life and Development of Villages
·
As people started farming, they began to live in one place for
longer periods to tend to their crops and animals. This led to the
establishment of the first
permanent villages and the concept of settled life.
4. Technology: Polished Stone Tools
·
Tools: The characteristic tool of this age was the polished, sharp, and shiny stone tool.
·
Key Tools:
o Celts (axe-heads) for
clearing forests and tilling land.
o Mortars and Pestles for grinding
grain.
·
Material: Tools were now polished, giving them a finer finish and
sharper edge than Palaeolithic tools.
5. Invention of Pottery
·
The need to store,
cook, and transport food grains and liquids led to
the invention of
pottery. This is a major archaeological marker for the
Neolithic period.
·
Early pottery was hand-made (not
wheel-made) and often had a rough surface.
6. Weaving and Spinning
·
Evidence of spindle
whorls (used for spinning thread) has been found at sites
like Burzahom. This indicates the beginning of weaving cloth from materials
like cotton and wool.
Important
Neolithic Sites in India (Region-wise)
The Neolithic culture in India is not
uniform and is best studied by its regional manifestations.
1. North-West Region: Mehrgarh (in modern-day Pakistan, near
Bolan Pass)
·
Period: c. 7000
BC (one of the earliest
Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent).
·
Key Features:
o Earliest evidence of
agriculture (wheat and barley) and domestication (cattle,
sheep, goats) in the subcontinent.
o Evidence of mud-brick houses and
granaries for storage.
o Early evidence of dentistry (drilled
human teeth).
o Considered a precursor to the Indus Valley
Civilization.
2. North-Eastern Region (Garo Hills)
·
Important Sites: Sarutaru, Daojali Hading, Selbagiri.
·
Key Features:
o Shouldered Celts (a specific type
of axe) and mortars.
o Evidence of Jhum cultivation (slash-and-burn
agriculture).
o Use of manufactured stone tools.
3. Vindhyan Region (Uttar Pradesh & Bihar)
·
Important Sites:
o Koldihwa: Found evidence
of the earliest
domestication of rice in the world (though this is
debated, it is certainly among the earliest).
o Mahagara: Evidence of rice cultivation and cattle pens,
suggesting settled village life.
o Chirand (Bihar): Unique for its
bone tools. Shows a long sequence of occupation from Neolithic to later
periods.
4. South India (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu)
·
This is known as the "Ash
Mound" culture because of large mounds of burnt
cattle dung (ash) found at sites.
·
Important Sites:
o Maski, Brahmagiri,
Piklihal, Tekkalakota, Sangana Kalleru, Utnur.
·
Key Features:
o Cattle-herding was a major occupation
(evidenced by ash mounds).
o Cultivation of millets and
pulses.
o Rock paintings depicting cattle,
hunters, and scenes of daily life.
o Burial Practices: Megalithic
burials (stone circles, dolmens) began in the late Neolithic and continued into
the Iron Age.
5. Kashmir Region
·
Important Site: Burzahom (meaning
'the place of birch').
·
Key Features:
o Pit-dwellings: People lived in
pits dug into the ground, likely for protection from the cold.
o Evidence of polished stone tools and bone tools (needles,
harpoons).
o Burial Practices: Animals were
sometimes buried with the dead. A unique burial with two dogs and a wild wolf was
found.
o Evidence of woven cloth.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Feature |
Details |
|
Time Period |
c. 8000 BC – 4000
BC (Started
earliest in Mehrgarh) |
|
Other Names |
Neolithic
Revolution, New Stone Age |
|
Economy |
Food Production -
Agriculture & Animal Domestication |
|
Settlement |
Permanent Villages (Sedentary
Life) |
|
Tool Technology |
Polished Stone
Tools (Celts,
Axes, Mortar-Pestle) |
|
Key Inventions |
1. Pottery |
|
Major Crops |
Wheat, Barley (NW), Rice (Vindhyas), Millets (South) |
|
Major Animals |
Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Dog, Pig |
|
Important Sites |
Mehrgarh (Earliest,
Agriculture), Burzahom (Pit-dwellings), Koldihwa (Early
Rice), Chirand (Bone
tools), Maski/Brahmagiri (Ash
Mounds) |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Neolithic Revolution: Understand why it was a
"revolution"—it fundamentally changed human society from nomadic to settled,
leading to surplus production, social stratification, and eventually,
civilization.
2.
Site-Specific Specialties:
o Mehrgarh: Earliest and
most important site; precursor to IVC.
o Burzahom: Pit-dwellings and
unique burial practices.
o Koldihwa/Mahagara: Early rice cultivation.
o South Indian Sites: Ash Mounds and
cattle-herding.
o Chirand: Bone tools.
3.
Chronology: Remember the sequence: Palaeolithic (Hunter) → Mesolithic
(Hunter + initial Domestication) → Neolithic (Farmer).
4.
Technological Comparison:
o Palaeolithic: Crude,
unpolished core/flake tools.
o Mesolithic: Miniature
microliths.
o Neolithic: Polished
stone tools (Celts).
5.
Legacy: The Neolithic age directly led to the rise of the Indus Valley Civilization in
the northwest and the Megalithic
cultures in the Deccan and South India.
2.
Proto-Historic Period: Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BC – 1300 BC)
Also known as the Harappan Civilization,
it was the first urban civilization in India.
·
Phases:
o Early Harappan
(3300-2600 BC)
o Mature Harappan (2600-1900
BC)
o Late Harappan
(1900-1300 BC)
·
Major Cities:
o Harappa (Pakistan -
Punjab), Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan
- Sindh) - both in Pakistan.
o Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada (Gujarat,
India).
o Kalibangan (Rajasthan,
India), Banawali (Haryana,
India), Rakhigarhi (Haryana,
India - largest IVC site).
·
Salient Features:
o Town Planning: Grid pattern,
well-planned drainage system, burnt-brick houses.
o Agriculture: Grew wheat,
barley, cotton, peas. Used wooden ploughs.
o Domestication: Animals like
cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes.
o Trade: Traded with
Mesopotamia. Known for cotton
production.
o Script: Pictographic
script (Not yet
deciphered).
o Religion: Worship of Mother Goddess, Pashupati Seal (Proto-Shiva),
Nature worship, Phallus (Lingam) worship.
o Decline: Theories include
climate change, drying of rivers (Saraswati), floods, and Aryan invasion
(largely discredited).
Early
Harappan Period (3300 BCE – 2600 BCE)
The Early Harappan period, also known as
the Formative
Phase or Pre-Urban
Phase, represents the foundational stage of the Indus Valley
Civilization. It marks the transition from small, scattered Neolithic villages
to larger, more complex settlements that would later evolve into the great
urban centers of the Mature Harappan period.
Overview
and Significance
·
Chronological Position: This period acts as a bridge between
the Neolithic past and
the urban zenith of
the Indus Valley Civilization (Mature Harappan).
·
Key Process: It was a period of regionalization, where distinct regional
cultures developed their own unique pottery styles, tool technologies, and
settlement patterns. These regional traits would later be integrated and
standardized during the Mature Harappan period.
Key
Characteristics and Developments
1. Settlement Patterns and Architecture
·
Village Life: Settlements were generally small villages.
·
Building Materials: Houses were made of mud-bricks, but the
standardization of brick sizes (4:2:1 ratio) seen in the Mature Harappan period
had not yet fully developed.
·
Early Fortifications: Some sites show the beginnings
of defensive walls and platforms, indicating
concerns for security and social organization. Example: The site of Kot Diji had a
massive defensive wall.
2. Economy and Subsistence
·
Agriculture: The agricultural base was firmly established. People
cultivated wheat,
barley, dates, cotton, and peas. The cultivation of cotton was
a significant achievement.
·
Animal Domestication: Relied heavily on domesticated
animals like cattle,
sheep, goats, and buffalo.
·
Craft and Technology:
o Pottery: The period is
known for its distinct regional
pottery styles (see major sites below). Pottery was often
hand-made or slow-wheel-made, painted with geometric designs, and featured
animal and plant motifs.
o Tool Making: Use of copper and bronze increased,
but stone tools (blades, microliths) were still common.
o Other Crafts: Evidence of terracotta figurines, bead making (from
steatite, carnelian), and shell
working.
3. Trade and Contact
·
Local and Regional Trade: There is evidence of trade networks
between different Early Harappan communities, exchanging materials like
semi-precious stones, shells, and copper.
·
Long-Distance Trade: Limited contact with regions
like Afghanistan (for
lapis lazuli) and Central
Asia has been identified.
4. Society and Culture
·
Social Stratification: Society was likely becoming more
complex and hierarchical, but not to the extent seen in the Mature Harappan
period.
·
Religious Beliefs: Some elements of later Indus religion may have their roots
here, such as the worship of a mother
goddess (evidenced by terracotta female figurines) and
possibly a proto-Shiva motif.
·
Writing: The Harappan
script likely made its first appearance in this period in
a rudimentary form, seen on potsherds and seals.
Major Early
Harappan Regional Cultures and Sites
This period is characterized by several
regional cultures, which are best understood through their key sites.
|
Regional Culture / Phase |
Key Sites |
Salient Features |
|
Amri-Nal Phase (Balochistan,
Pakistan) |
Amri |
Distinctive
Pottery: Red
and buff pottery painted with black and white designs (e.g., horizontal
bands, fringes, humped bulls). Showed continuous development without a break. |
|
Kot Diji Phase (Sindh,
Pakistan) |
Kot Diji |
Fortifications: Had a
massive defensive wall made of mud-bricks and stone. Pottery: Red
and grey buff ware with geometric and fish-scale patterns. Shows a clear
destruction layer before the Mature Harappan rebuild. |
|
Sothi-Siswal Phase (Rajasthan
& Haryana, India) |
Sothi, Siswal,
Rakhigarhi |
Pottery: Characterized
by "Dish-on-stand"
and "Offering
Stand". Painted designs in black on red. Sites: Many of
these sites, like Rakhigarhi, grew into major urban centers later. |
|
Dholavira Region (Gujarat,
India) |
Dholavira |
Early Planning: Evidence of early
water conservation and management systems. The site shows a transition from
an early settlement to a massive, planned city. |
|
Mehrgarh Period IV (Balochistan,
Pakistan) |
Mehrgarh |
Continuity: This site
shows a direct cultural evolution from the Neolithic (Period I & II) to
the Early Harappan (Period IV). Evidence of increasing craft specialization
and social complexity. |
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Feature |
Details of Early Harappan Period |
|
Time Period |
c. 3300 BCE – 2600
BCE (Also
called the Formative
Phase) |
|
Settlement Type |
Villages evolving
into small towns |
|
Economy |
Established
Agriculture (wheat,
barley, cotton) & Pastoralism |
|
Technology |
Copper/Bronze +
Stone Tools, Hand-made/Slow-wheel Pottery |
|
Architecture |
Mud-brick houses, Early fortifications (e.g.,
Kot Diji) |
|
Pottery |
Region-specific
styles (Kot
Diji, Amri, Sothi-Siswal) |
|
Trade |
Emerging regional
networks |
|
Script |
Earliest
appearances of
the Harappan script |
|
Significance |
Laid the
foundation for
the urban planning, trade, and culture of the Mature Harappan period. |
Transition
to the Mature Harappan Period (c. 2600 BCE)
The transition was a process of integration. Around
2600 BCE, the distinct regional cultures began to fade, replaced by a remarkably uniform and standardized culture across
the entire Indus region. This is marked by:
·
Standardization of brick sizes.
·
Uniformity in pottery styles, seals, and weights.
·
The full development of the Harappan script.
·
The emergence of planned cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and
Dholavira.
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Not "Pre-Harappan": Avoid calling it
"Pre-Harappan." It is the first
stage of the Harappan Civilization itself.
2.
Regionalization vs. Integration: The key theme
is Regionalization
(Early Harappan) versus Integration (Mature Harappan).
3.
Site-Specific Knowledge:
o Kot Diji: Famous for
its defensive wall.
o Amri: Known for
its distinctive
pottery.
o Sothi-Siswal: Known for "Dish-on-stand"
pottery.
o Mehrgarh: Shows the complete cultural sequence from
Neolithic to Harappan.
4.
Foundation of Key Elements: Remember
that agriculture,
domestication, trade networks, and the script all have
their roots in this period.
5.
Link to Mature Phase: Always be prepared to discuss how the Early Harappan period led to
the Mature Harappan period.
Mature
Harappan Period (2600 BCE – 1900 BCE)
This period, also known as the Urban Phase or
the Integration
Era, represents the zenith of the Indus Valley Civilization. It
was a time of spectacular urban development, economic prosperity, and cultural
uniformity across a vast geographical area, making it one of the world's
earliest and most extensive Bronze Age civilizations.
Overview
and Significance
·
Chronological Position: This is the classic phase of
the Indus Valley Civilization, following the Early Harappan and preceding the
Late Harappan period.
·
Key Process: It was a period of integration, where the diverse regional
cultures of the Early Harappan phase coalesced into a single, unified, and
standardized culture.
·
Geographical Spread: Covered over 1.5 million sq. km (much
larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia combined), including parts of
modern-day Pakistan,
northwestern India, and Afghanistan.
Key
Characteristics and Achievements
1. Urban Planning: The Hallmark of the Civilization
This is the most frequently asked topic.
The level of town planning was unparalleled in the contemporary world.
·
Layout: Cities were divided into two parts:
o Citadel (Upper Part): A raised,
fortified platform where the ruling class lived and important public buildings
were located.
o Lower Town: The main
residential area for the common people.
o Exception: Sites like Dholavira had
a three-fold
division (Citadel, Middle Town, Lower Town).
·
Grid Pattern: Streets cut each other at right angles,
dividing the city into large rectangular blocks.
·
Drainage System: A highly advanced, covered drainage system was a unique
feature. House drains connected to street drains, which had manholes for
cleaning.
·
Standardized Bricks: Burnt bricks were used in a
standardized ratio of 4:2:1 (length:breadth:thickness).
2. Economic Activities
·
Agriculture:
o Staple Crops: Wheat, barley,
rice (found at sites in Gujarat & Rajasthan), dates, peas, mustard, cotton.
o Irrigation: Relied on
seasonal floods and possibly used canals for irrigation.
·
Animal Domestication: Cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo, cats,
dogs, and camels. The humped bull (Zebu) was common.
·
Trade and Commerce:
o Internal Trade: Well-established
trade networks across the region.
o External Trade: Had thriving
trade with Mesopotamia (modern
Iraq and Iran), where they were known as "Meluhha".
o Exports: Cotton textiles,
pottery, beads, terracotta goods, ivory products.
o Imports: Gold (from
Karnataka), Copper (from Rajasthan and Oman), Tin (from Afghanistan and Central
Asia), Lapis Lazuli (from Afghanistan), Jade (from Central Asia).
o Transport: Used bullock
carts and boats. A dockyard has been identified at Lothal.
3. Social and Political Life
·
Social Organization: Society was likely divided into different
classes (rulers, merchants, artisans, laborers, peasants), but evidence is not
clear-cut like in Egypt or Mesopotamia.
·
Political Structure: The nature of the political system
is unknown. The remarkable uniformity in planning and culture suggests a centralized authority or
a system of closely linked city-states, but there is no evidence of kings,
queens, or emperors.
4. Religion and Beliefs
·
Mother Goddess: Widespread discovery of terracotta female figurines
suggests the worship of a Mother
Goddess symbolizing fertility.
·
Proto-Shiva (Pashupati Seal): A famous seal
from Mohenjo-Daro depicts a cross-legged, horned figure surrounded by animals,
identified by some scholars as an early form of the god Shiva (Pashupati).
·
Nature and Animal Worship: Worship of trees
(Pipal), animals (the one-horned bull 'Unicorn' is common on seals), and
phallic symbols (potential early form of Shiva Linga).
·
Burial Practices: Three main methods:
1.
Complete Burial
2.
Fractional Burial (burying bones after exposure to elements/wild beasts)
3.
Post-Cremation Burial (burying ashes in an urn)
5. Art and Culture
·
Seals: The most famous artifacts, usually made of steatite. They
feature animal motifs (Unicorn, Bull, Elephant, Tiger) and a short inscription
in the undeciphered
Harappan script. They were probably used for trade and
authentication.
·
Pottery: Mostly wheel-made, red in colour, and painted with black
designs (geometric patterns, animals, plants).
·
Sculpture: Few stone statues found. The most famous are the "Priest-King" (steatite)
from Mohenjo-Daro and the "Dancing
Girl" (bronze) from Mohenjo-Daro, showcasing advanced
skill in metal casting.
·
Bead Making & Ornaments: Expertly crafted
beads from materials like carnelian, steatite, lapis lazuli, and gold. Evidence
of necklaces, bangles, and anklets.
Important
Mature Harappan Sites
|
Site |
Location (Modern) |
Salient Features |
|
Harappa |
Punjab, Pakistan |
Type-site. Multiple
granaries, evidence of coffin burial, workmen's quarters. |
|
Mohenjo-Daro |
Sindh, Pakistan |
"Mound of the
Dead." Largest
site. Great Bath, Great Granary, "Priest-King" and "Dancing Girl" statues. |
|
Dholavira |
Gujarat, India |
Three-part
division. Unique water conservation system with
series of reservoirs. Large signboard with
Harappan script. |
|
Lothal |
Gujarat, India |
Dockyard for berthing
ships. Bead-making
factory, Persian
Gulf seal, evidence of rice husk. |
|
Kalibangan |
Rajasthan, India |
Evidence of ploughed field (earliest
in the world). Fire
Altars, Lower
Town was also fortified. |
|
Banawali |
Haryana, India |
Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan
culture. Good quality barley found. |
|
Chanhudaro |
Sindh, Pakistan |
Industrial center. Exclusive
center for bead-making,
shell-cutting, and metal-working. No citadel. |
|
Surkotada |
Gujarat, India |
Evidence of horse bones (a
subject of debate). A fortified citadel and lower town. |
|
Rakhigarhi |
Haryana, India |
Largest IVC site
in India. Shows
all three phases (Early, Mature, Late). A monumental cemetery found. |
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Feature |
Details of Mature Harappan Period |
|
Time Period |
c. 2600 BCE – 1900
BCE (Also
called the Urban
Phase) |
|
Settlement Type |
Well-Planned
Cities (Citadel
& Lower Town) |
|
Town Planning |
Grid Pattern, Standardized Bricks (4:2:1), Advanced Drainage |
|
Economy |
Agriculture & Extensive
Trade (with
Mesopotamia - Meluhha) |
|
Script |
Harappan Script (Boustrophedon, Not yet deciphered) |
|
Religion |
Mother Goddess,
Pashupati (Proto-Shiva), Nature Worship |
|
Key Sites |
Harappa,
Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan |
|
Unique Finds |
Great Bath, Dockyard (Lothal), Pashupati Seal, Dancing Girl |
Decline of
the Mature Harappan Phase (c. 1900 BCE onwards)
Around 1900 BCE, the civilization began to
decline and eventually collapsed. The reasons are debated and likely a combination
of:
1.
Climate Change: Weakening of monsoons, increased aridity, drying up of the
Ghaggar-Hakra River (often identified with the mythical Saraswati).
2.
Floods: Repeated flooding in some areas (e.g., Mohenjo-Daro).
3.
Deforestation: Excessive use of wood for smelting copper and baking
bricks.
4.
Geological Disturbances: Tectonic uplift affecting river
courses.
5.
Invasion/Aryan Migration Theory: This old theory
of a violent Aryan invasion is largely discredited now in favor of ecological
and economic factors.
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Uniformity & Standardization: This is the
central theme. The same planning, bricks, seals, and weights are found across
distant sites.
2.
Town Planning is Key: Be thorough with the features of
town planning (Citadel, Lower Town, Drainage, Grid Pattern).
3.
Site-Specific Specialties:
o Mohenjo-Daro: Great Bath, Great
Granary.
o Lothal: Dockyard.
o Kalibangan: Ploughed field,
Fire Altars.
o Dholavira: Water reservoirs,
Signboard.
o Chanhudaro: Industrial
center.
4.
Trade with Mesopotamia: Remember the term "Meluhha".
5.
Script & Seals: The script is undeciphered. Seals
are primarily made of steatite.
6.
Decline Theories: Focus on ecological
factors (climate change, river drying) rather than the
Aryan invasion theory.
Late
Harappan Period (1900 BCE – 1300 BCE)
The Late Harappan period, also known as
the Post-Urban
Phase or Localization
Era, marks the decline and transformation of the great Indus
Valley Civilization. It was not a sudden collapse but a gradual process
of de-urbanization,
where the large, integrated cities broke down into smaller, regional rural
cultures.
Overview
and Significance
·
Chronological Position: This period follows the peak of the
Mature Harappan period and precedes (and overlaps with) the beginning of
the Vedic Period in
North India.
·
Key Process: It was a period of localization. The widespread uniformity
of the Mature Harappan phase disappeared, giving way to diverse regional
cultures that developed their own distinct pottery styles and material
cultures.
·
Core Idea: Think of it as a transitional phase—the end of the first
urbanization in India and the beginning of new cultural and socio-political
formations.
Key
Characteristics and Changes
1. Decline of Urbanism and Transformation of Settlements
·
Abandonment of Cities: Major urban centers like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Kalibangan were
abandoned or saw a drastic reduction in population and planning.
·
Ruralization: There was a shift from large, planned cities to smaller, rural settlements.
Life became more focused on villages and pastoralism.
·
Shift in Settlement Pattern: People
moved eastward and
southward into the Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys (Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan) and Gujarat, perhaps following shifting river courses.
2. Material Culture and Economic Changes
·
Decline in Craft Specialization and Trade:
o The sophisticated craft
production (seal-making, bead-making, long-distance trade) declined
significantly.
o Writing disappeared. The Harappan
script fell out of use.
o Standardized weights
and measures were no longer used.
·
Changes in Pottery: The distinct, high-quality, painted
pottery of the Mature Harappan phase was replaced by cruder, plain or poorly
fired pottery with different regional styles.
o Example: The appearance
of Cemetery H
culture pottery in the Punjab region.
·
Simplification of Tools and Implements: Tools became less
sophisticated and varied.
3. Continuity and Cultural Transformation
Despite the decline, many Harappan
elements survived and were absorbed into subsequent cultures.
·
Subsistence Patterns: Agriculture and domestication of animals continued
without a break. The same crops (wheat, barley) and animals (cattle, sheep,
goat) remained central to the economy.
·
Certain Crafts: Terracotta
figurines (especially of bulls) and some decorative motifs
continued.
·
Religious Beliefs: Some scholars argue for a continuity of certain religious
practices (e.g., worship of a mother goddess, pipal tree, and phallic symbols)
that may have influenced later Hindu traditions.
Major Late
Harappan Regional Cultures and Phases
The civilization broke down into several
regional cultures, which are identified by their distinct pottery styles.
|
Regional Culture / Phase |
Geographical Area |
Salient Features |
|
Cemetery H Culture (Named after
a cemetery at Harappa) |
Punjab, Haryana,
Western UP |
Pottery: Distinct red
pottery painted with geometric and natural motifs (like peacocks, sun
symbols) in black. |
|
Jhukar Culture |
Sindh region
(Pakistan) |
Sites: Jhukar,
Mohenjo-Daro (upper levels). |
|
Rangpur Culture (Late Phase) |
Gujarat |
Pottery: Characterized
by Lustrous Red
Ware. |
Important
Late Harappan Sites
·
Bet Dwarka (Gujarat): A coastal settlement that showed
Late Harappan habitation and evidence of continued maritime activity.
·
Daimabad (Maharashtra): A large settlement in the Godavari
valley. Famous for the Daimabad
Hoard of bronze sculptures (Chariot, Elephant, Buffalo,
Rhinoceros), which show a mix of Harappan and local Chalcolithic traditions.
·
Bhagwanpura (Haryana): Showed an overlap between
the late Harappan and the early Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures, indicating
cultural continuity and transition.
Causes for
the Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
This is a crucial topic for all
competitive exams. The decline was likely caused by a combination of factors,
not a single event.
1.
Climate Change and Environmental Degradation:
o Weakening of the
monsoon system, leading to increased aridity and drought.
o Drying up of the
Ghaggar-Hakra River, which is often identified with the mythical Saraswati River.
This was a major blow to the agricultural economy.
2.
Natural Disasters:
o Tectonic Uplift: Geological
changes might have altered the course of rivers, disrupting the water supply.
o Recurrent Floods: Evidence at sites
like Mohenjo-Daro suggests destructive floods.
3.
Economic and Administrative Breakdown:
o The collapse of
long-distance trade with Mesopotamia disrupted the economy.
o Over-exploitation of
resources (e.g., deforestation for firing bricks) may have led to an ecological
crisis.
o The administrative
system that maintained urban planning and uniformity may have collapsed.
4.
The "Aryan Invasion" Theory (Largely Discredited):
o An old theory suggested
that the invasion of nomadic, horse-riding Aryans destroyed the civilization.
o Current Scholarly View: There is no archaeological evidence for
a violent, sudden invasion. The Aryan migration was likely a gradual process
that happened alongside the decline, and the two cultures may have interacted
and merged over centuries.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Feature |
Details of Late Harappan Period |
|
Time Period |
c. 1900 BCE – 1300
BCE (Also
called the Post-Urban
Phase) |
|
Key Process |
Localization /
De-urbanization |
|
Settlement Type |
Rural Villages (Large
cities abandoned) |
|
Material Culture |
Decline in
writing, seals, standardized weights, and urban crafts. |
|
Pottery |
Regional Styles (Cemetery H,
Jhukar, Lustrous Red Ware) |
|
Economy |
Shift to localized agriculture and
pastoralism; Long-distance
trade collapsed. |
|
Significance |
Period of
transition where
Harappan traditions declined but provided a substratum for subsequent
cultures (Vedic and Chalcolithic). |
Crucial Exam-Oriented
Points
1.
Not a Sudden Collapse: Emphasize that it was a gradual decline and transformation,
not an overnight disappearance.
2.
Localization vs. Integration: The key theme is
the reversal of the Mature Harappan process: Integration (Mature) → Localization
(Late).
3.
Causes of Decline: Focus on the multi-causal
model, especially climate
change and the drying of rivers. The Aryan invasion theory
should be mentioned but clearly stated as discredited.
4.
Continuity and Change: Highlight that while urban features
disappeared, rural
life and subsistence patterns continued. This cultural
substratum is very important for understanding later Indian history.
5.
Link to Later Periods: The Late Harappan period overlaps
with the early Vedic period. Cultures like the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture
are considered contemporary and may represent a fusion of late Harappan and
incoming Vedic traditions.
3. The
Vedic Period (c. 1500 BC – 600 BC)
This period is marked by the composition
of the Vedas and is divided into two phases.
A. Early Vedic or
Rigvedic Period (1500 BC – 1000 BC)
·
Geography: Settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region
(Land of Seven Rivers) in present-day Punjab and Afghanistan.
·
Polity: Tribal polity with 'Rajan' (king). Popular assemblies
were Sabha and Samiti.
·
Economy: Pastoral and pastoral economy. Cow was the main unit of
wealth.
·
Society: Patriarchal society. No caste system, only based on
occupation (Varna).
·
Religion: Worship of natural forces like Indra (rain), Agni (fire),
Varuna (water), Surya (sun).
B. Later Vedic Period
(1000 BC – 600 BC)
·
Geography: Shifted eastwards to the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region.
·
Polity: Emergence of large kingdoms like Kuru and Panchala. King's
power increased.
·
Economy: Agriculture became
primary. Rice and wheat were main crops.
·
Society: Varna
system became rigid (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,
Shudras). Gotra
system appeared.
·
Religion: Rituals and sacrifices became dominant. New gods
like Prajanpati
(Brahma) and Vishnu gained
prominence.
·
Important Texts:
o Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur,
Atharva.
o Brahmanas: Explain rituals.
o Aranyakas &
Upanishads: Philosophical texts discussing concepts like Karma, Dharma, Moksha, and Atman.
A. Early Vedic
or Rigvedic Period (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE)
This period marks the advent of the Indo-Aryans into
the Indian subcontinent. Our knowledge of this era is derived almost entirely
from the Rigveda,
the oldest of the four Vedas, which is a collection of hymns composed in Sanskrit. Hence, this
period is also called the Rigvedic
Period.
1. Geographical
Extent
The Early Vedic Aryans were primarily
settled in the region known as the "Sapta-Sindhu" or
the Land of the Seven Rivers. This corresponds to modern-day Punjab (India and Pakistan) and parts
of Afghanistan.
·
Core Region: Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab, and the fringes of western
Uttar Pradesh.
·
Major Rivers Mentioned: The most mentioned rivers are
the Sindhu (Indus), Saraswati (now
extinct), Vitasta
(Jhelum), Asikni
(Chenab), Parushni
(Ravi), Vipas
(Beas), and Sutudri
(Sutlej).
·
The Himalayas and the Ocean were known, but
the Vedic people had not yet expanded into the Gangetic plains.
2.
Political Life and Organization
The polity was essentially tribal and egalitarian,
with no large kingdoms or empires.
·
Basic Political Unit: The Jana or tribe. The most frequently mentioned tribe was
the Bharatas.
·
Head of the Tribe: The Rajan or king. His
position was not
absolute or hereditary. He was more of a tribal chief, chosen
for his bravery and leadership skills in battle.
·
Popular Assemblies:
o Sabha: A smaller assembly of elders or important members.
o Samiti: A larger, broader assembly of the tribe. The king had to seek
its approval on important matters.
o Vidatha: Another tribal assembly with both political and religious
functions.
·
No Standing Army: The army was composed of militias from the clans (Vis) and was only mustered during times of war.
·
Officials: The Purohita (priest)
and Senani (army chief) were the two most
important officials who assisted the king. The Spas (spies) and Dutas (messengers) were
also mentioned.
·
Source of Revenue: The king received voluntary tributes from his subjects
called Bali. There was no regular tax system or
bureaucracy.
3. Social
Life
Society was relatively simple, mobile, and
based on kinship.
·
Social Division: The basis of social structure was Varna or complexion/colour. The Dasa/Dasyus (the original inhabitants) were
dark-skinned (Krishna Varna) and the Aryans were
fair-skinned.
o The four-fold Varna
system (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras) was in a nascent stage and not rigid or hereditary.
It was primarily based on occupation.
·
Family Structure: The family was the basic social unit, known as the Kula. The family was patriarchal.
The head of the family was the Grihapati.
·
Status of Women: Women enjoyed a respectable position.
o They could attend
the Sabha and Vidatha.
o There was no practice of child marriage or
sati.
o Women were educated;
some even composed hymns in the Rigveda (e.g., Lopamudra, Ghosa, Maitreyi, Gargi).
·
Marriage: Monogamy was the norm, though polygamy was practiced among
royalty and nobles.
4. Economic
Life
The economy was primarily pastoral and nomadic,
with agriculture being a secondary occupation.
·
Pastoralism: The primary source of wealth was cattle. A wealthy man
was called a Gomat. Wars were often fought for the control
of cattle (Gavisthi).
·
Agriculture: Known but not the mainstay. They cultivated barley (Yava). There is no
mention of rice in the Rigveda.
·
Other Occupations:
o Carpentry: Making chariots
and carts.
o Metal Work: Knew of
copper/bronze (Ayas). Iron was unknown.
o Weaving: Was practiced on
a small scale.
o Transport: Chariots (Ratha), carts (Anas), and boats (Nau) were used.
·
Trade: Barter system was prevalent. The cow was a common unit of
value. There was no use of coins.
5. Religion
Religion was simple, personal, and
centered around the worship of natural forces personified as gods. The main
purpose was to pray for praja (children), pashu (cattle), health, and wealth.
·
Male Dominated Gods: Most of the important deities were
male.
·
Major Gods of the Rigveda:
o Indra: The most important
god (250 hymns). He was the god of rain and thunder, also called Purandara (breaker of forts).
o Agni: The second most
important god (200 hymns). The god of fire and the intermediary between gods
and humans.
o Varuna: The upholder of
the cosmic order (Rta). He was the god of water and the moral
judge.
o Soma: The god of plants
and the personification of the sacred Soma drink.
o Other Gods: Surya (Sun), Vayu
(Wind), Prithvi (Earth), Usha (Dawn), Aditi, and the Ashvins.
·
Mode of Worship: Simple prayers and hymns were chanted. Elaborate rituals,
temple worship, and idolatry were absent. The Yajna (sacrifice) involved offering milk, grain, ghee, and
sometimes animals to the fire.
·
No Caste System: The priestly class (Brahmins) did not have the supreme
position they would later acquire.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Feature |
Details of the Early Vedic (Rigvedic)
Period |
|
Time Period |
c. 1500 BCE – 1000
BCE |
|
Primary Source |
Rigveda (1028 Hymns,
10 Mandalas) |
|
Geographical Area |
Sapta-Sindhu (Land of
Seven Rivers) - Punjab & Afghanistan |
|
Polity |
Tribal ( |
|
Society |
Tribal &
Egalitarian,
Varna based on occupation (not birth), High status of women |
|
Economy |
Primarily Pastoral (Cattle =
Wealth), Agriculture secondary (Barley) |
|
Religion |
Worship of Nature (Indra,
Agni, Varuna), Simple prayers & sacrifices |
|
Key Concepts |
|
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Source is Rigveda: Remember, all information is derived from the Rigveda.
2.
Geography: Focus on the Sapta-Sindhu region.
The Ganga is mentioned only once.
3.
Pastoral Economy: The centrality of cattle is a key differentiator from
the later Vedic period.
4.
Flexible Social Structure: The Varna system was fluid,
unlike the rigid caste system of the Later Vedic period.
5.
Status of Women: This is a high-yield topic. Be clear that women had
a respectable and
relatively free position.
6.
Comparison with Harappan Culture: The Vedic culture
was rural,
pastoral, and mobile, in stark contrast to the urban, settled, and trade-oriented Harappan
culture.
7.
Important Tribes: Remember the Bharatas and
the famous Battle
of Ten Kings (Dasarajna) fought on the
banks of the Parushni (Ravi) river, where the Bharata king Sudas emerged
victorious.
B. Later Vedic
Period (1000 BCE – 600 BCE)
This period marks a significant transition
from the tribal, pastoral society of the Rigvedic age to a more settled,
agricultural, and complex society centered in the Gangetic Plains. The
source of information shifts from the Rigveda to the other three Vedas and
their associated texts, reflecting profound changes in all aspects of life.
1.
Geographical Expansion
The most noticeable change was the eastward movement of
the Vedic people.
·
Core Region Shifted: From the Sapta-Sindhu (Punjab)
region to the Ganga-Yamuna
Doab (modern-day Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi).
·
New Territories: The Vedic Aryans gradually settled in the areas of Kosala (Eastern UP), Kashi
(Varanasi), and Videha (North Bihar). The Vindhyas are
mentioned as the southern boundary.
·
Evidence: The Shatapatha
Brahmana describes the eastward expansion led by a sage,
Videgha Madhava, and the fire-god Agni.
2.
Political Life and Organization
The simple tribal polity of the Rigvedic
period evolved into a more structured and powerful territorial kingdom.
·
From Tribe to Territory: The term Janapada (foothold of a tribe) gained prominence over Jana (tribe). The land and its control became central.
·
Large Kingdoms: Prominent kingdoms like Kuru, Panchala, and Kosala emerged.
The title of the ruler changed from Rajan to Samrat (supreme ruler).
·
Growth of Royal Power:
o The King's position
became hereditary.
The concept of divine origin developed (e.g., rituals like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha).
o The popular
assemblies Sabha and Samiti lost
their importance and became more exclusive, dominated by
nobles and Brahmins.
o Vidatha disappeared completely.
·
Complex Administration: The administration became more
complex with a new cadre of officials.
o Important Officials: Suta (charioteer & chronicler), Sangrahitri (Treasurer), Bhagadugha (Tax
collector), Mahishi (Chief Queen), Akshavapa (Accountant).
·
Taxation: A regular taxation system emerged. The king
collected Bali (a compulsory tax), Bhaga (share of the produce), and Sulka (customs duties).
3. Social
Life
Society became more hierarchical, rigid,
and complex.
·
Caste System (Varna) Became Rigid: The four-fold
Varna system became hereditary
and birth-based, replacing the earlier flexible,
occupation-based system.
o Brahmins: Became the
foremost varna due to their monopoly on rituals.
o Kshatriyas: The ruling and
warrior class. A rivalry for supremacy between Brahmins and Kshatriyas is
visible in texts.
o Vaishyas: The commoners,
comprising farmers, herders, and traders. They were the main tax-payers.
o Shudras: Became a clearly
defined, oppressed class tasked with serving the other three varnas. They were
excluded from rituals and education.
·
Gotra System: The institution of Gotra (lineage) appeared for the first time, regulating marriage
rules (exogamy).
·
Ashrama System: The four stages of life (Brahmacharya-student, Grihastha-householder, Vanaprastha-hermit, Sanyasa-ascetic) were
mentioned in the Jabala
Upanishad, but not fully formalized.
·
Status of Women:
o Deteriorated
significantly. They lost their political and social rights.
o They were no longer
allowed to attend Sabha or Samiti.
o The birth of a daughter became unwelcome.
Practices like child
marriage, sati (immolation of widows), and purdah began to
appear, though they were not yet widespread.
o Their primary role was
confined to the household, and their access to education was restricted.
4. Economic
Life
The economy transformed from being
predominantly pastoral to being agrarian.
·
Agriculture Became Primary:
o New iron tools (like
the iron ploughshare) enabled the clearing of thick forests in the Gangetic
plains, making agriculture more efficient.
o Knowledge of
fertilizers and irrigation improved.
o New Crops: Besides barley,
they now cultivated rice
(Vrihi), wheat, and pulses.
·
Decline of Pastoralism: Cattle wealth remained important,
but agriculture became the main source of livelihood and state revenue.
·
Crafts and Specialization: A wide range of
new crafts emerged, indicating greater specialization.
o New Crafts: Weaving,
pottery-making, metalwork (in iron),
carpentry, leatherworking, and jewellery making.
·
Trade and Exchange:
o Barter continued, but
the use of Nishka (gold coins) and Satamana (silver coins) as units of value began.
o The emergence of
merchants (Vanik) and a class of usurers is noted.
5. Religion
and Philosophy
Religion became more complex, ritualistic,
and philosophical.
·
Rise of Priesthood: The Brahmins became
the sole interpreters and performers of complex rituals, consolidating their
social power.
·
Elaborate Rituals: Simple prayers were replaced by elaborate, public, and
expensive sacrifices requiring priestly expertise.
o Important Royal
Rituals:
§ Rajasuya: Consecration ceremony of a king.
§ Ashvamedha: Horse sacrifice to proclaim supremacy.
§ Vajapeya: A chariot race ritual.
·
Shift in Pantheon:
o Old Gods Faded: Indra and Agni lost their
prime importance.
o New Gods Emerged: Prajanpati (the Creator) became
the supreme god. Rudra (the
terrible) and Vishnu (the
preserver) became increasingly important.
·
Philosophical Revolt - The Upanishads:
o Towards the end of this
period, the Upanishads (also
called Vedanta) were composed, marking a philosophical reaction against
ritualism.
o They introduced
profound concepts like:
§ Brahman (the ultimate reality) and Atman (the individual soul).
§ The doctrine of Karma (action and its consequences).
§ Moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death) as the
ultimate goal of life.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Feature |
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BCE) |
|
Primary Sources |
Yajur, Sama,
Atharva Vedas; Brahmanas, Upanishads |
|
Geographical Area |
Ganga-Yamuna Doab (Shift
Eastwards) |
|
Polity |
Large Territorial
Kingdoms (Kuru,
Panchala), Rise
of King's power, Decline
of Sabha/Samiti |
|
Society |
Varna system
became rigid & hereditary, Gotra system appeared, Status of Women declined |
|
Economy |
Agriculture became
primary (Rice,
Wheat), Use of
Iron, Craft
specialization |
|
Religion |
Rise of Ritualism
& Priesthood, New
Gods (Prajanpati, Vishnu), Philosophy of Upanishads |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Contrast with Rigvedic Age: The key to
mastering this topic is to compare
and contrast it with the Early Vedic period.
2.
Shift in Geography & Economy: Remember the
shift from Punjab
(Pastoral) to Gangetic Plains (Agricultural).
3.
Social Rigidity: The transformation of the Varna system from fluid to rigid is
a critical development.
4.
Upanishads: Their philosophical concepts (Brahman, Atman, Karma, Moksha)
are fundamental to Indian philosophy and are frequently asked.
5.
Important Texts: Be clear about which texts belong to which period.
The Brahmanas are
pro-ritualism, while the Upanishads are
anti-ritualism.
6. Iron Technology: The use of iron
was a key technological factor that enabled the clearing of forests and the
agricultural expansion into the Gangetic plains.
4. Rise of
Mahajanapadas & New Religions (c. 600 BC – 300 BC)
This was a period of intellectual and
political ferment.
·
16 Mahajanapadas: 16 great kingdoms/republics that emerged. Important ones
were Magadha,
Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti.
·
Rise of Magadha: Became the most powerful kingdom. Key dynasties:
o Haryanka Dynasty: Bimbisara,
Ajatashatru.
o Shishunaga Dynasty
o Nanda Dynasty: Established first
large empire in North India.
·
Jainism:
o Founder: Vardhamana Mahavira (24th
Tirthankara).
o Doctrines: Triratna (Right
Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct), Pancha Mahavrata (Ahimsa, Satya,
Asteya, Aparigraha, Brahmacharya).
·
Buddhism:
o Founder: Gautama Buddha.
o Doctrines: Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga), Middle Path.
o First Sermon: At Sarnath (Deer
Park).
o Important Councils:
§ 1st Council: Rajgriha, just
after Buddha's death.
§ 2nd Council: Vaishali, led to
split into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas.
§ 3rd Council: Pataliputra,
under Ashoka.
The Age of
Mahajanapadas (c. 600 BCE – 300 BCE)
The period following the Later Vedic Age
is known as the Age of Mahajanapadas. It marks the transition from a
semi-nomadic tribal polity to large, territorial states and the second urbanization in
India (the first being the Indus Valley Civilization).
·
Meaning: The term 'Mahajanapada' is
derived from 'Maha' meaning great and 'Janapada' meaning 'foothold of a tribe'
or 'kingdom'.
·
Timeline: 6th
Century BCE is the core period for the rise of the 16
Mahajanapadas.
·
Sources: The Buddhist
text Anguttara
Nikaya and the Jain
text Bhagavati
Sutra provide lists of these 16 great states.
The List of
16 Mahajanapadas
The following table lists all 16
Mahajanapadas with their capitals and modern locations, which is crucial for
exams.
|
Mahajanapada |
Capital |
Modern Location (Approx.) |
Important Facts |
|
1. Kashi |
Varanasi |
Around Varanasi, UP |
Initially the most powerful; famous for
its cotton textiles and trade. Later annexed by Kosala. |
|
2. Kosala |
Shravasti (also Ayodhya & Saketa) |
Eastern UP |
Powerful kingdom; ruled by King Prasenjit (a
contemporary of Buddha). Annexed Kashi.
Later merged with Magadha. |
|
3. Anga |
Champa |
Eastern Bihar (Bhagalpur, Munger) |
Important for trade and commerce. Noted
for its merchant prince Setthi.
First to be annexed by Magadha. |
|
4. Magadha |
Initially Rajgriha (Girivraja),
later Pataliputra |
South Bihar (Patna, Gaya) |
Most Important. The nucleus
of India's first major empire. Founded by Bimbisara of
the Haryanka dynasty. Rich in iron ore. |
|
5. Vajji (Vrijji) |
Vaishali |
North Bihar (Muzaffarpur) |
A Confederacy (Gana or Sangha) of
eight clans, most notably the Lichchhavis. Vaishali was
its capital. A republic, it was a rival of Magadha. |
|
6. Malla |
Kushinagar, Pava |
Parts of UP & Bihar (Gorakhpur) |
Also a Republic (Gana).
Two main branches. Important in Buddhist history as the place where Lord Buddha attained
Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar. |
|
7. Chedi (Cheti) |
Shuktimati |
Bundelkhand region (UP/MP) |
Prominent in Hindu epics (Mahabharata).
King Shishupala was
from Chedi. |
|
8. Vatsa (Vamsa) |
Kaushambi |
Near Allahabad, UP |
A monarchy. King Udayana was a
famous ruler. Strategically located on the trade route. |
|
9. Kuru |
Indraprastha (Hastinapur) |
Delhi-Meerut region |
A monarchy that declined in political
importance but remained a center of Vedic culture. |
|
10. Panchala |
Ahichchhatra (North), Kampilya (South) |
Western UP |
A monarchy that later became a republic.
An important center for Vedic learning. |
|
11. Matsya |
Viratnagar |
Jaipur-Alwar region, Rajasthan |
A monarchy. Found mention in the
Mahabharata as the place where the Pandavas spent their year of exile. |
|
12. Surasena |
Mathura |
Mathura region, UP |
A monarchy later turned republic.
Important center for Krishna worship (Bhagavatism). Capital Mathura was a
strategic economic center. |
|
13. Assaka
(Ashmaka) |
Potali / Pratisthana |
Godavari Valley (Maharashtra/AP) |
The southernmost Mahajanapada,
located south of the Vindhyas. |
|
14. Avanti |
Ujjaini (North), Mahishmati (South) |
Malwa region, MP |
A powerful kingdom and a major rival of
Magadha. King Pradyota was
a contemporary of Bimbisara. Later annexed by Magadha. |
|
15. Gandhara |
Taxila |
Rawalpindi, Pakistan |
Famous for its trade and commerce. A
center of international learning (Taxila University). Noted for the Gandhara art in
later centuries. |
|
16. Kamboja |
Rajapura / Poonch |
Rajori-Hazara region
(Pakistan/Afghanistan) |
Known for its skilled horsemen. Often
mentioned alongside Gandhara. A republic. |
Key Themes
and Important Topics for Exams
1. Political Structure: Republics vs. Kingdoms
This is a crucial classification.
·
Monarchies (Rajas): Most of the Mahajanapadas were
monarchies (e.g., Magadha, Kosala, Avanti). Power was concentrated in the hands
of a king.
·
Republics (Ganas or Sanghas): A few were
non-monarchical, oligarchic republics.
o Examples: Vajji Confederacy (most
famous), Malla, Kamboja.
o Features: The ruling class
(Kshatriya clans) met in an assembly to decide matters. They had a chief who
was elected and was not hereditary.
2. The Rise of Magadha
The most important outcome of this period
was the rise of Magadha as the supreme power. Reasons for its rise are frequently
asked.
Geographical and
Economic Factors:
·
Rich in Iron Ore: Located near rich iron deposits in Rajgir and the
Jharkhand region. This allowed for superior weapons and agricultural tools.
·
Fertile Land: The Ganga plains provided highly fertile land for
agriculture, ensuring a surplus of food.
·
Strategic Location: Surrounded by rivers (Ganga, Son,
Gandak) which provided natural defence and facilitated trade and transport.
·
Elephant Forests: The forests in the region provided abundant elephants, a
crucial component of the ancient army.
Political Factors:
·
Ambitious Rulers: Dynasties like the Haryanka (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru)
and later the Shishunaga and Nanda pursued
aggressive expansionist policies.
·
Powerful Army: Magadha was the first to use a large, standing army
equipped with advanced weapons.
3. Urbanization and Economic Changes
·
Second Urbanization: This period saw the growth of many
cities like Rajgriha,
Pataliputra, Vaishali, Shravasti, Kaushambi, and Champa.
·
Use of Iron: Widespread use of iron for tools and weapons boosted
agriculture and trade.
·
Coinage: The first punch-marked coins (called Purana or Karshapana) came into
use, facilitating trade.
·
Rise of Merchant Class: A wealthy class of merchants and
bankers (Setthis)
emerged, who often became patrons of new religions like Buddhism and Jainism.
4. Religious Context
·
The conflict and social rigidity in the Mahajanapada period
provided the backdrop for the rise of heterodox religions like Buddhism and Jainism,
which challenged the dominance of Vedic Brahmanism and its complex rituals.
·
Many Mahajanapadas (e.g., Magadha, Kosala, Vajji) were the early
centers where Buddha and Mahavira preached.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Aspect |
Key Details |
|
Timeline |
c. 600 BCE – 300 BCE (6th Century
BCE is key) |
|
Total Number |
16 Mahajanapadas |
|
Most Powerful |
Magadha (emerged as
the ultimate winner) |
|
Main Republics |
Vajji, Malla,
Kamboja |
|
Major Rivals |
Magadha vs. Avanti; Magadha vs. Vajji |
|
Significance |
Period of Second Urbanization; Rise of Magadhan
Empire; Background for Buddhism/Jainism. |
|
Key Cities |
Rajgriha,
Pataliputra, Vaishali, Taxila |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Memorize the List: Be familiar with at least the most important ones: Magadha, Kosala, Vajji, Avanti,
Gandhara, Kashi, Anga.
2.
Capitals are Key: Remember the capitals, especially Rajgriha (Magadha), Vaishali (Vajji),
and Taxila (Gandhara).
3.
Republics vs. Kingdoms: Always be prepared to distinguish
between them, with Vajji as
the prime example of a republic.
4.
Reasons for Magadha's Rise: This is a
potential 10-mark question in UPSC. Remember the factors: Geographical, Economic, and Political.
5.
Link to Buddhism/Jainism: Connect the locations to the lives
of Buddha and Mahavira (e.g., Buddha attained Nirvana in Kushinagar, a Malla
republic; Mahavira was associated with Vaishali).
6.
Map Work: For UPSC Mains, you should be able to locate these
Mahajanapadas on a map, especially the clusters in the Gangetic plains.
The Rise of
Magadha (c. 544 BCE – 322 BCE)
The rise of Magadha as the supreme power
in the 6th century BCE is a watershed moment in Indian history. From being one
of the 16 Mahajanapadas, it grew to become the nucleus of India's first major
empire, the Mauryan Empire. Its success was a result of a combination of
geographical, economic, political, and military factors.
1. Timeline
and Dynasties
The rise of Magadha spans three important
dynasties:
·
Haryanka Dynasty (c. 544 BCE – 412 BCE)
·
Shishunaga Dynasty (c. 412 BCE – 344 BCE)
·
Nanda Dynasty (c. 344 BCE – 322 BCE)
2.
Geographical and Economic Factors (The Foundation)
These were the underlying reasons for
Magadha's initial advantage.
·
Location: Magadha was located in present-day Bihar, south of the
Ganga, with its early capital at Rajgriha
(Rajgir) and later at Pataliputra (Patna).
·
Fertile Land: The land between the Ganga, Son, and Punpun rivers was
extremely fertile, allowing for agricultural
surplus, which could sustain a large army and population.
·
Iron Ore Deposits: The region of Rajgir was
rich in iron ore. This allowed Magadha to produce superior weapons and effective
agricultural tools.
·
Elephant Forests: The forests in the region provided abundant elephants, a crucial
component of the ancient army and a significant military advantage over rivals
like Avanti, which had fewer elephants.
·
River Network: Rivers provided easy transportation, trade routes, and
acted as a natural
barrier against enemies.
·
Capital Fortifications:
o Rajgriha was surrounded by
five hills, making it naturally fortified.
o Pataliputra was situated at
the confluence of the Ganga, Son, and Gandak rivers, providing a strategic and
defensible location.
3.
Political Factors: The Role of Ambitious Rulers
The rulers of Magadha were expansionist
and strategically brilliant.
A. Haryanka Dynasty
·
Bimbisara (c. 544 BCE – 492 BCE): The real founder
of Magadha's power.
o Policy of Matrimonial
Alliances: He married:
§ Kosala Devi: Sister of King
Prasenajit of Kosala, which brought him Kashi as a dowry and secured his
western front.
§ Chellana: A Lichchhavi
princess from Vaishali, improving relations with the powerful Vajji
confederacy.
§ A princess from Madra
(Punjab): Securing the northern route.
o Annexations: He annexed the
eastern kingdom of Anga (with
its important port of Champa), which gave Magadha control over lucrative trade
routes.
o Administration: He was the first
king to maintain a standing
army.
·
Ajatashatru (c. 492 BCE – 460 BCE): More aggressive
than his father.
o War with Kosala: Fought a
successful war against his maternal uncle, Prasenajit, and eventually annexed
Kosala.
o War with Vajji: Waged a long and
difficult war for 16 years against the Vajji confederacy. To combat Vaishali's
strong fortifications, he used two innovative weapons:
§ Mahashilakantaka (a catapult to
hurl massive stones).
§ Rathamusala (a chariot with a
spinning mace attached).
o Foundation of
Pataliputra: He built a fort at the village of Pataligrama on
the Ganga to monitor the Vajjis. This fort later grew into the mighty
capital Pataliputra.
B. Shishunaga Dynasty
·
Shishunaga (c. 412 BCE – 394 BCE):
o He finally annexed Avanti,
Magadha's greatest rival, ending a century-long struggle and bringing the whole
of western India under Magadha's control.
C. Nanda Dynasty
·
Mahapadma Nanda (c. 344 BCE – ? BCE):
o He is often called
the "first
empire builder of India" and "Ekarat" (the
sole sovereign).
o He overthrew the
Shishunagas and established the Nanda dynasty.
o He destroyed the
remnants of the Kshatriya dynasties, earning the title "Sarva-Kshatrantak" (destroyer
of all Kshatriyas).
o He annexed Kalinga (modern
Odisha), which brought the lucrative trade with the Deccan and South India
under Magadha's control.
o The Nandas created a
vast, centralized administrative structure and amassed immense wealth, as noted
by Greek historians.
·
Dhana Nanda (c. ? BCE – 322 BCE):
o The last Nanda ruler,
known for his immense wealth and a large army (including 200,000 infantry,
20,000 cavalry, and 3,000 elephants).
o His unpopularity due to
heavy taxation and a low-born status (as perceived by the orthodoxy) made it
easy for Chandragupta
Maurya and Chanakya to
overthrow him and establish the Mauryan
Empire.
4.
Strategic and Military Innovations
·
Use of Elephants: Magadha's access to elephant forests gave it a military
edge that few could match.
·
Advanced Siege Weaponry: As seen with Ajatashatru's Mahashilakantaka and Rathamusala.
·
Large Standing Army: The Nandas maintained one of the
largest standing armies in the subcontinent's history up to that point.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Factor |
Details |
|
Geographical |
Fertile land, Iron ore, Elephant forests,
River network, Fortified capitals (Rajgriha, Pataliputra) |
|
Economic |
Agricultural surplus, Control over trade
routes (after annexing Anga and Kalinga) |
|
Political (Rulers) |
Bimbisara (Alliances,
Annexed Anga), Ajatashatru (Annexed
Kosala & Vajji), Shishunaga (Annexed
Avanti), Mahapadma
Nanda (Annexed Kalinga, Empire builder) |
|
Military |
Use of Elephants, Advanced siege weapons,
Large standing army (Nandas) |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Reasons for Rise: This is a potential 10-15 mark question in UPSC Mains.
Structure your answer using the categories: Geographical, Economic, Political,
and Military.
2.
Bimbisara vs. Ajatashatru: Know their
distinct contributions. Bimbisara was a diplomat, Ajatashatru was a warrior.
3.
Mahapadma Nanda's Title: Remember he is called the "first empire builder" and "Ekarat".
4.
Weapons of Ajatashatru: The names Mahashilakantaka and Rathamusala are
often asked in exams.
5.
Sequence of Annexations: Remember the order: Anga → Kosala → Vajji → Avanti →
Kalinga.
6.
Capital Cities: The shift from Rajgriha to Pataliputra is
significant.
7.
Legacy: The Magadhan empire, built by the Haryanka, Shishunaga,
and Nanda dynasties, provided the foundation (administration, infrastructure,
resources) for the Mauryas to build upon.
Jainism: An
Overview
Jainism is one of the oldest religions
originating in India, emerging as a Shramana
tradition (ascetic tradition) that challenged the
authority of the Vedic religion and its ritualistic practices. It
emphasizes strict
asceticism, non-violence, and the individual's path to liberation.
1. Origins
and Timeline
·
Founder: While Jains believe their faith is eternal, the last
(24th) Tirthankara in this cycle of time is considered the reviver of the path.
·
The 24 Tirthankaras ("Ford-makers"): These are
spiritual teachers who have achieved liberation and show the path to others.
o 1st Tirthankara: Rishabhadeva (Adinath)
o 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha (c.
8th-7th century BCE)
§ He is considered a
historical figure.
§ He preached the "Chatur-yama" (Fourfold
Restraint): Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha.
o 24th Tirthankara: Vardhamana Mahavira (c.
599 BCE – 527 BCE) - The most important figure for the current era.
2. Lord
Mahavira: The Last Tirthankara
·
Life Events:
o Birth: 599 BCE in
Kundagrama, near Vaishali (in modern Bihar). His parents were King Siddhartha
and Queen Trishala.
o Clan: He belonged to
the Jnatra or
Jnatrika Kshatriya clan.
o Renunciation: At age 30, he
left home to become an ascetic.
o Kaivalya (Enlightenment): At age 42, after
12 years of rigorous penance, he attained Kaivalya (supreme knowledge) under
a Sal tree on
the banks of the Rijupalika river near Jrimbhikagrama.
o Followers: He established a
four-fold order of Sadhus (monks), Sadhavis (nuns), Shravakas (male
laypersons), and Shravikas (female
laypersons).
o Death (Nirvana): At age 72 in 527
BCE at Pavapuri, near Rajgir (Bihar).
3. Core
Doctrines and Philosophy
A. The Three Jewels (Triratna)
The path to liberation is achieved by
following the Triratna:
1.
Samyak Darshan (Right Faith)
2.
Samyak Gyan (Right Knowledge)
3.
Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct)
B. The Five Vows (Pancha Mahavrata)
For ascetics, these are observed very
strictly. For lay followers, they are observed partially as Anuvratas (minor
vows).
1.
Ahimsa (Non-violence): The most important principle. It
extends to not harming any living being, even in thought.
2.
Satya (Truth): Always speaking the truth.
3.
Asteya (Non-stealing): Not taking anything not given.
4.
Brahmacharya (Celibacy): Chastity.
5.
Aparigraha (Non-possession): Renunciation of
all worldly attachments.
C. Key Philosophical Concepts
·
Anekantavada (Theory of Multiple Viewpoints): Reality is
complex and can be perceived from multiple perspectives. This promotes
religious tolerance.
·
Syadvada (Theory of Maybe): All judgments are
conditional and can be expressed with the word "Syat" (maybe). It
emphasizes the relativity of knowledge.
·
Nayavada (Theory of Partial Standpoints): A subset of
Anekantavada, it states that we can only know a part of reality, not the whole.
·
Karma Theory: Jainism has a very detailed and materialistic view of
Karma. Karma is seen as a subtle matter that binds to the soul (Jiva), causing its
bondage. Liberation (Moksha)
is achieved by stopping the influx of new karma (Samvara) and shedding the existing karma (Nirjara).
4. Major
Sects of Jainism
The main schism in Jainism occurred around
the 3rd century BCE.
|
Feature |
Digambara ("Sky-clad") |
Svetambara ("White-clad") |
|
Meaning |
"Sky-clad" meaning nude. |
"White-clad" meaning wearing
white clothes. |
|
Monastic Practice |
Male monks practice complete nudity.
Female monks wear white clothes. |
Monks and nuns wear white clothes. |
|
Status of Women |
Believe women cannot achieve liberation
directly. |
Believe women can achieve liberation. |
|
Sacred Texts |
Believe the original Purvas (ancient
texts) are lost. |
Accept the 45 Agamas (Angas & Upangas)
as canonical. |
|
Major Subsects |
Bisapantha, Terapantha |
Murtipujak, Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi |
5.
Important Jain Councils
These were held to compile and preserve
the Jain canonical literature.
·
First Council: Held at Patliputra in
the 3rd century BCE, presided by Sthulabhadra.
The 12 Angas were compiled here.
·
Second Council: Held at Vallabhi (Gujarat)
in the 5th century CE, presided by Devardhi
Kshamasramana. The final compilation of the Jain Agamas
(Svetambara canon) was completed here.
6.
Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture
·
Language & Literature: Jain monks
used Prakrit languages
(like Ardha-Magadhi) for their texts, promoting the growth of these languages.
They also made significant contributions to Sanskrit, Tamil, and Kannada literature.
·
Architecture: Jains built magnificent temples. Famous examples include:
o Dilwara Temples (Mount
Abu)
o Girnar and Palitana Temples
(Gujarat)
o Statue of Gomateshwara
(Bahubali) at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka)
·
Promotion of Non-Violence: The extreme
emphasis on Ahimsa influenced
Indian thought and was a key inspiration for Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Aspect |
Key Details |
|
Founder (24th
Tirthankara) |
Vardhamana
Mahavira (599-527
BCE) |
|
Predecessor (23rd) |
Parshvanatha |
|
Core Philosophy |
Ahimsa,
Anekantavada, Syadvada |
|
Path to Liberation |
Triratna (Right
Faith, Knowledge, Conduct) |
|
Main Sects |
Digambara (Nude
monks), Svetambara (White-clad
monks) |
|
Language of Texts |
Ardha-Magadhi
(Prakrit) |
|
Important Kings |
Chandragupta
Maurya, Kharavela (Kalinga), Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta) |
|
Important Councils |
Patliputra (3rd Cen.
BCE), Vallabhi (5th
Cen. CE) |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Mahavira vs. Buddha: Often asked in comparisons. Key
differences: Mahavira accepted the existence of the soul (Atman), Buddha did not (Anatma). Mahavira
advocated extreme asceticism, Buddha promoted the Middle Path.
2.
Doctrines: Be clear on the definitions of Anekantavada and Syadvada.
3.
Sects: Remember the basis of the split (clothing) and the status
of women in each sect.
4.
Patronage: Remember key patrons like Chandragupta Maurya (who,
according to Jain tradition, became a Jain monk and died at Shravanabelagola)
and the Rashtrakuta
king Amoghavarsha.
5.
Contribution to Vernaculars: Jainism's role in
promoting Prakrit and other vernacular languages is a key cultural
contribution.
Buddhism:
An Overview
Buddhism is one of the most
important Shramana
traditions that emerged in the 6th century BCE as a
reaction against the ritualistic orthodoxy of Vedic Brahmanism. Founded by
Siddhartha Gautama, it emphasized a practical path to end suffering and achieve
enlightenment.
1. Life of
Gautama Buddha (c. 563 BCE – 483 BCE)
The life of the Buddha is marked by key
events, often called the "Four Great Sights."
·
Birth: Born as Siddhartha
Gautama in Lumbini (near
Kapilavastu in modern Nepal) to Shuddhodana (king
of the Shakya clan) and Mahamaya.
He belonged to the Kshatriya varna.
·
Early Life: Led a sheltered life of luxury within the palace. Married
to Yashodhara and
had a son, Rahula.
·
The Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana): At the age of 29,
after witnessing the "Four Sights" – an old man, a sick man, a dead
body, and an ascetic – he renounced worldly life to find a solution to human
suffering.
·
Enlightenment (Nirvana): After six years of extreme
asceticism and meditation, he attained enlightenment at the age of 35 under
a Pipal tree at Bodh Gaya (Bihar).
From then on, he was known as the Buddha (the
Enlightened One) or Tathagata (one
who has thus gone).
·
First Sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana): He delivered his
first sermon at Sarnath (near
Varanasi) to his five former companions. This event is known as the
"turning of the wheel of law" and marks the foundation of the Sangha (monastic
order).
·
Death (Mahaparinirvana): He passed away at the age of 80
in Kushinagar (Uttar
Pradesh).
2. Core Doctrines
and Philosophy
A. The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)
This is the foundation of Buddhist
philosophy.
1.
Dukkha (The Truth of Suffering): Life is
inherently filled with suffering.
2.
Samudaya (The Truth of the Cause of Suffering): The cause of
suffering is desire, craving, and attachment.
3.
Nirodha (The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering): Suffering can be
ended by eliminating desire and attachment.
4.
Magga (The Truth of the Path to the Cessation of Suffering): The path to end
suffering is the Noble
Eightfold Path.
B. The Noble Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)
This is the practical path to end
suffering, categorized under three divisions:
|
Division |
Components |
|
Prajan (Wisdom) |
1. Samyak Drishti (Right View) |
|
Sheel (Ethical
Conduct) |
3. Samyak Vacha (Right Speech) |
|
Samadhi (Mental
Discipline) |
6. Samyak Vyayama (Right Effort) |
C. Other Key Concepts
·
Middle Path (Madhyama Pratipada): A path of
moderation, avoiding the extremes of self-indulgence and severe asceticism.
·
Law of Dependent Origination (Pratityasamutpada): Everything in the
universe is interdependent; nothing exists independently.
·
Theory of Impermanence (Anitya): Everything in the
world is transient and subject to change.
·
No-Soul (Anatma): Buddhism denies the existence of a permanent, unchanging soul
(atman). What
we perceive as a "self" is just a combination of five aggregates (Skandhas).
·
Karma: Buddhism accepts the law of karma but rejects the role of
a supreme god in its administration.
3. Major
Buddhist Councils
These councils were crucial for the
preservation and schism of Buddhist teachings.
|
Council |
Year & Venue |
Patron |
Presided by |
Outcome |
|
First |
c. 483 BCE, Rajgriha |
Ajatashatru (Magadha) |
Mahakassapa |
Sutta (Buddha's teachings) and Vinaya
(monastic code) were compiled. |
|
Second |
c. 383 BCE, Vaishali |
Kalasoka (Shishunaga) |
Sabakami |
First Schism: Split
into Sthaviravadins (orthodox)
and Mahasanghikas (liberal). |
|
Third |
c. 250 BCE, Pataliputra |
Ashoka (Maurya) |
Moggaliputta Tissa |
Abhidhamma Pitaka was compiled. Decision
to send missionaries to other countries (e.g., Mahinda to Sri Lanka). |
|
Fourth |
c. 78 CE, Kundalvana, Kashmir |
Kanishka (Kushana) |
Vasumitra (Asvaghosha
as Vice-President) |
Division into Mahayana and Hinayana formalized.
Buddhist texts were translated into Sanskrit. |
4. Major
Sects of Buddhism
·
Hinayana/Theravada ("The Lesser Vehicle"):
o Follows the original
teachings of Buddha.
o Goal is individual
salvation (Arhat).
o Pali language is used.
o Prevalent in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos.
·
Mahayana ("The Greater Vehicle"):
o Believes in idol
worship and the concept of a savior.
o Goal is to become
a Bodhisattva (one
who delays their own nirvana to help others).
o Sanskrit language is
used.
o Prevalent in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Tibet.
·
Vajrayana ("The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt"):
o Emerged later,
incorporates tantric practices and rituals.
o Prevalent in Tibet, Bhutan, and parts of Nepal and
Japan.
5.
Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture
·
Architecture:
o Stupas (e.g., Sanchi,
Bharhut, Amaravati)
o Chaityas (prayer halls -
e.g., Karle, Bhaja)
o Viharas (monasteries -
e.g., Nalanda, Vikramshila)
·
Art: Development of Gandhara (Greco-Buddhist)
and Mathura schools
of art.
·
Language: Use of Pali and Prakrit by
Buddha made his teachings accessible to the common people, challenging the
monopoly of Sanskrit.
·
Education: Establishment of great monastic universities like Nalanda, Takshashila, Vikramshila,
and Vallabhi.
·
Social Impact: Challenged the caste system and the supremacy of Brahmins,
providing an egalitarian platform.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Aspect |
Key Details |
|
Founder |
Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) |
|
Time Period |
c. 563 BCE – 483 BCE |
|
Important Places |
Lumbini (Birth), Bodh Gaya (Enlightenment), Sarnath (First
Sermon), Kushinagar (Death) |
|
Core Teachings |
Four Noble Truths, Noble Eightfold Path, Middle Path |
|
Key Concepts |
Karma, Ahimsa,
Anatma, Anitya |
|
Sects |
Hinayana,
Mahayana, Vajrayana |
|
Language |
Pali |
|
Important Kings |
Bimbisara,
Ajatashatru, Ashoka, Kanishka, Harsha |
|
Important Texts |
Tripitakas (Sutta,
Vinaya, Abhidhamma), Jatakas (stories
of Buddha's previous births) |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Buddha vs. Mahavira: Be prepared for comparison
questions. Key differences: Buddha rejected asceticism (Middle Path), denied
the soul (Anatma),
and was silent on the existence of God.
2.
Four Noble Truths & Eightfold Path: This is the heart
of Buddhist philosophy and is frequently asked.
3.
Buddhist Councils: Remember the venue,
patron king, and outcome for each council, especially the
3rd (Ashoka) and 4th (Kanishka).
4.
Spread of Buddhism: Understand the role of Ashoka's missionaries and
the Silk Route (under
Kanishka) in spreading Buddhism to Central Asia, China, and beyond.
5.
Decline in India: Reasons include the loss of royal patronage after the
Guptas, the rise of Bhagavatism (Vaishnavism) and Shaivism, absorption into
Hinduism (Buddha was accepted as an avatar of Vishnu), and invasions (notably
by the Huns and Turks).
5. The
Mauryan Empire (c. 322 BC – 185 BC)
India's first widespread empire.
·
Founder: Chandragupta
Maurya with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya).
·
Important Rulers:
o Bindusara: Known as Amitraghata (Slayer
of foes).
o Ashoka: The most famous
Mauryan ruler.
§ Kalinga War (261 BC) was the turning
point; he embraced Buddhism.
§ Propagated Dhamma (a moral
code of conduct).
§ Edicts: Inscribed his
teachings on rocks and pillars. Written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script.
·
Administration:
o Highly centralized. The
empire was divided into provinces.
o Espionage system was
well-developed.
·
Sources:
o Arthashastra by Kautilya.
o Indica by Megasthenes
(Greek ambassador).
·
Decline: After Ashoka, weak successors led to its fall. The last
king was Brihadratha.
The Mauryan
Empire: An Overview
The Mauryan Empire was the first pan-Indian empire,
covering most of the Indian subcontinent. It marked a transition from small,
regional states to a large, centralized, and powerful empire. Its history is
crucial for understanding ancient Indian administration, art, and culture.
1. Founding
and Sources
·
Founder: Chandragupta
Maurya with the guidance of his mentor, Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta).
·
Overthrow: Chandragupta overthrew the last ruler of the Nanda
Dynasty, Dhana
Nanda, around 322 BCE.
·
Important Sources:
o Archaeological: Ashoka's Edicts (Primary
source).
o Literary:
§ Indian: Kautilya's Arthashastra (a
treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy); Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa (a
play); Puranas (for
chronology).
§ Foreign: Megasthenes' Indica (He
was the Greek ambassador to Chandragupta's court. His original work is lost but
survives in fragments quoted by later Greek writers).
2.
Important Rulers of the Mauryan Dynasty
A. Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322 BCE – 297 BCE)
·
Founder of the Empire: Established a vast empire from
Bengal to Afghanistan.
·
War with Seleucus: Defeated Seleucus
Nicator, a general of Alexander the Great, around 305 BCE.
o Treaty: Seleucus ceded
territories in modern-day Afghanistan and Balochistan.
o Matrimonial Alliance: Chandragupta
married Seleucus's daughter.
o Greek Ambassador: Megasthenes was
sent to Chandragupta's court at Pataliputra.
·
Jain Tradition: In his later life, Chandragupta embraced Jainism,
abdicated the throne, and went to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) with the Jain
monk Bhadrabahu,
where he fasted to death (Sallekhana).
B. Bindusara (c. 297 BCE – 273 BCE)
·
Son of Chandragupta, known as Amitraghata ("Slayer
of Foes").
·
Extended the empire southwards into the Deccan.
·
Diplomatic Relations: Maintained friendly relations with
the Hellenistic world. The Syrian king Antiochus I sent Deimachus as an
ambassador to his court.
C. Ashoka (c. 268 BCE – 232 BCE)
·
The Greatest Mauryan Ruler, one of the most
famous kings in world history.
·
Accession: According to Buddhist texts, he seized the throne after a
war of succession with his brothers.
·
Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE): The turning point in his life.
o Location: Modern-day
Odisha.
o Impact: The massive death
and destruction (100,000 killed, 150,000 deported) led Ashoka to renounce war
and embrace Buddhism.
·
Dhamma (Dharma): Ashoka's personal doctrine of moral and social conduct.
o Principles: Non-violence,
tolerance of all sects, obedience to parents, respect for elders and teachers,
generosity towards priests and ascetics, humane treatment of servants and
slaves.
o Propagation: He propagated
Dhamma through his Edicts inscribed
on rocks and pillars all over his empire.
·
Missions: Sent Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia,
West Asia, and Southeast Asia, making Buddhism a world religion. He sent his
son Mahinda and
daughter Sanghamitta to
Sri Lanka.
3. Ashoka's
Inscriptions (Edicts)
This is a very high-yield topic for exams.
·
Languages: Prakrit (language
of the common people).
·
Scripts: Mostly Brahmi (deciphered
by James Prinsep). In the northwest, Kharosthi and Greek/Aramaic were
used.
·
Types of Edicts:
o Major Rock Edicts (14): Found at Kalinga
(Dhauli, Jaugada), Girnar (Gujarat), Sopara (Maharashtra), Yerragudi (Andhra),
etc.
o Minor Rock Edicts: Found at Maski
(Karnataka), etc. The Maski
Edict is crucial as it specifically mentions the name
"Ashoka".
o Major Pillar Edicts
(7): Found
at Topra, Meerut, etc. The famous Lion
Capital from Sarnath (now the National Emblem of India) is
from an Ashokan pillar.
o Minor Pillar Edicts: E.g., Rummindei
(Lumbini, Nepal) mentioning his visit to Lumbini; Nigali Sagar.
4.
Administration of the Mauryan Empire
The empire had a highly centralized and
bureaucratic administration.
·
Central Administration:
o King: The head of the
state, with absolute power.
o Council of Ministers: Mantri Parishad to
advise the king.
o Important Officials: Sannidhata (Chief
Treasury Officer), Samaharta (Chief
Collector of Revenue).
·
Provincial Administration: The empire was
divided into five provinces with viceroys (mostly royal princes).
o North: Uttarpatha
(Capital: Taxila)
o South: Dakshinpatha
(Capital: Suvarnagiri)
o East: Prachya (Capital:
Tosali)
o West: Avantiratha
(Capital: Ujjain)
o Central: Magadha (Capital:
Pataliputra)
·
Local Administration:
o Districts were headed
by Rajukas.
o Villages were headed
by Gramika (village
headman).
·
Spy System (Espionage): A well-developed spy system (Gudhapurushas) kept the king
informed about the officials and the public.
·
Judicial Administration: The king was the supreme
judge. Dharmasthiyas were
civil courts and Kantakasodhanas were
criminal courts.
5. Economy
and Society
·
Agriculture: The primary occupation. The state built irrigation canals.
·
Trade and Industry:
o Internal and external
trade flourished.
o Important trade routes
connected North India with South India and the Northwest with the Gangetic
plain.
o Major exports: Silk,
textiles, spices, pearls.
o Guilds (Shrenis) were prominent.
·
Taxation: The chief source of revenue was land tax (usually 1/6th of
the produce, known as Bhaga).
Other taxes included Bali (a
religious tribute) and Kara.
6. Art and
Architecture
The Mauryan period marks the beginning of
monumental stone art and architecture in India.
·
Pillars: Polished sandstone pillars with capitals (the
top part). E.g., Sarnath Lion Capital, Lauriya-Nandangarh pillar.
·
Stupas: Built to enshrine the relics of Buddha. The core of
the Sanchi Stupa was
built by Ashoka.
·
Rock-cut Architecture: The Barabar and Nagarjuni caves in
Bihar were dedicated by Ashoka to the Ajivika sect. These are the earliest
surviving rock-cut caves in India.
·
Palaces: The Mauryan palace at Kumrahar (Pataliputra), as described by Megasthenes,
was a magnificent wooden structure.
7. Decline
of the Mauryan Empire
The empire started declining after
Ashoka's death in 232 BCE and finally ended in 185 BCE.
·
Causes:
o Weak Successors: The later Mauryan
kings were weak and inefficient.
o Vastness of the Empire: It was difficult
to administer such a large empire centrally.
o Financial Crisis: Huge expenditure
on the army, bureaucracy, and religious donations strained the treasury.
o Ashoka's Pacifist
Policy: His policy of Dhamma and
non-aggression is argued to have weakened the military strength of the empire.
o Internal Revolts and
External Invasions: The empire was divided into two parts, and the last
Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha,
was assassinated by his Brahmana commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga,
in 185 BCE.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Aspect |
Key Details |
|
Founder |
Chandragupta
Maurya (with
Chanakya) |
|
Capital |
Pataliputra |
|
Greatest Ruler |
Ashoka |
|
Turning Point |
Kalinga War (261
BCE) |
|
Official Doctrine |
Ashoka's Dhamma |
|
Sources |
Arthashastra,
Indica, Ashokan Edicts |
|
Languages of
Edicts |
Prakrit (Brahmi
Script) |
|
Architecture |
Pillars, Stupas,
Rock-cut Caves |
|
Last Ruler |
Brihadratha (assassinated
by Pushyamitra Shunga) |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Ashoka's Dhamma vs. Buddhism: Dhamma was
a code of conduct,
not a religion. It was secular and aimed at social harmony.
2.
Edicts: Remember the script
(Brahmi) and the significance of the Maski Edict (naming
Ashoka) and the Rummindei
Edict (mentioning Lumbini).
3.
Administrative Terms: Be clear on the roles of Rajukas, Sannidhata, Samaharta, and the Mantri Parishad.
4.
Foreign Sources: The importance of Megasthenes' Indica and James Prinsep's decipherment of
Brahmi script.
5.
Art & Symbolism: The Sarnath Lion Capital as
the National Emblem. The four lions symbolize power, courage, pride, and
confidence. The wheel (Dharma
Chakra) from the base is on the Indian flag.
6.
Post-Mauryan / Pre-Gupta Period (c. 185 BC – 320 AD)
A period of foreign invasions and regional
kingdoms.
·
Indo-Greeks: Introduced coinage and Gandhara Art.
·
Shakas (Scythians): Rudradaman I repaired the Sudarshana Lake. His
Junagadh Inscription is the first royal Sanskrit inscription.
·
Kushanas: Most important ruler was Kanishka.
o Started the Shaka Era (78
AD).
o Patronized Mahayana Buddhism.
o Gandhara & Mathura
schools of art flourished.
o 4th Buddhist Council was held in
Kashmir under Kanishka.
·
Satavahanas (Deccan):
o Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest
ruler.
o Patronized Prakrit
language and Brahmanism.
·
Sangam Age (South India):
o The period of
composition of Sangam
literature in Tamil.
o Three main
kingdoms: Cholas,
Cheras, Pandyas.
Post-Mauryan
/ Pre-Gupta Period overview
This era marks a period of political
fragmentation after the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, followed by the rise of
regional kingdoms and foreign dynasties. It was a time of vibrant cultural,
economic, and religious developments, acting as a bridge between the first
great empire (Mauryas) and the second (Guptas).
1. Political
Landscape: An Overview
The period is characterized by the rule of
several indigenous and foreign dynasties, often overlapping in time and region.
A. The Shunga Dynasty (c. 185 BCE – 73 BCE)
·
Founder: Pushyamitra
Shunga, the Brahmin commander-in-chief who assassinated the
last Mauryan king, Brihadratha.
·
Capital: Pataliputra,
later Vidisha.
·
Important Rulers:
o Pushyamitra Shunga: Known for
performing two Ashvamedha
Yajnas (horse sacrifices). He was a patron of Brahmanism.
Buddhist texts (like Divyavadana)
portray him as a persecutor of Buddhists, but this is debated.
o Agnimitra: His son, the hero
of Kalidasa's drama Malavikagnimitram.
·
Significance: They ruled in Central India and fought against the Kalingas and Indo-Greeks.
B. The Kanva Dynasty (c. 73 BCE – 28 BCE)
·
Founder: Vasudeva
Kanva, a minister who overthrew the last Shunga king.
·
Rule: A short-lived dynasty that ruled a small territory around
Magadha before being absorbed by the Satavahanas.
2. Foreign
Invasions and Rulers
This is a crucial and frequently asked
topic.
A. Indo-Greeks (c. 2nd Century BCE)
·
Origin: From Bactria (Central Asia). The most famous ruler
was Menander
(Milinda).
·
Capital: Taxila (in
present-day Pakistan).
·
Contributions:
o Coinage: They were
the first to issue
gold coins in India.
o Art: They are
associated with the initial development of the Gandhara School of Art (Greco-Buddhist
art).
o Buddhist Text: The Buddhist
text Milinda Panho (Questions of
Milinda) is a dialogue between King Menander and the Buddhist sage
Nagasena.
B. The Shakas (Scythians) (c. 1st Century BCE – 4th Century CE)
·
Origin: From Central Asia. They displaced the Indo-Greeks.
·
Important Ruler: Rudradaman
I (c. 130–150 CE).
o Known for his Junagadh Inscription (in
Gujarat).
o This is the first major Sanskrit inscription and
records the repair of the Sudarshana
Lake (built originally by the Mauryas).
·
Administration: They introduced the system of appointing military governors called Kshatrapas and Mahakshatrapas.
C. The Parthians (c. 1st Century CE)
·
Origin: From Iran. Their rule was short and overshadowed by the
Shakas and Kushanas.
·
Important Ruler: Gondophernes.
o According to an
apocryphal Christian tradition, the Apostle St. Thomas visited
his court.
D. The Kushanas (c. 1st Century – 3rd Century CE)
·
Origin: A tribe from Central Asia (Yueh-chi confederacy). They
established a vast empire extending from Central Asia to the Ganga plain.
·
Capital: Purushapura
(Peshawar), with a second capital at Mathura.
·
Important Rulers:
o Kujula Kadphises: Founder who
united the Kushan clans.
o Vima Kadphises: Issued gold coins
in large numbers.
o Kanishka (c. 78 CE –
101/102 CE): The greatest
Kushana ruler and a figure of immense importance.
·
Kanishka's Contributions:
o Starter of an Era: He started the Saka Era in 78 CE, which is used
by the Government of India.
o Buddhist Council: He convened
the Fourth
Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
o Patron of Buddhism: He
patronized Mahayana
Buddhism. Scholars like Ashvaghosha (author of Buddhacharita), Vasumitra, and Nagarjuna flourished
in his court.
o Art & Architecture: The Gandhara School of Art reached
its zenith under him. He also built the famous Kanishka Stupa at
Purushapura.
o Coinage: His coins feature
a mix of Greek, Zoroastrian, and Hindu deities, showing religious syncretism.
3.
Indigenous Powers
A. The Satavahanas (c. 1st Century BCE – 3rd Century CE)
·
Region: The Deccan (modern Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka).
·
Capital: Pratishthana
(Paithan) on the Godavari river.
·
Important Rulers:
o Simuka: Founder of the
dynasty.
o Gautamiputra Satakarni
(c. 1st-2nd Century CE): The greatest Satavahana ruler. He is credited with
defeating the Shakas and proudly called himself the destroyer of the
Kshaharatas (Shakas). His achievements are recorded in the Nasik Inscription composed
by his mother, Gautami
Balasri.
o Hala: Renowned for
compiling the Gatha Saptasati, an anthology of
Prakrit love poetry.
·
Administration: They were the first to grant tax-free land grants to
Brahmins and Buddhist monks, a practice that became widespread later.
·
Religion: Patrons of both Brahmanism and Buddhism.
·
Art: They are famous for the Buddhist stupas at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.
B. The Sangam Age (South India) (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE)
·
Kingdoms: Three major kingdoms: Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
·
Capital Cities:
o Cholas: Uraiyur ->
Puhar (Kaveripattinam)
o Cheras: Vanji (Karur)
o Pandyas: Madurai
·
Sangam Literature: Assemblies of poets (Sangam) produced a vast
corpus of Tamil literature.
o Tolkappiyam: The earliest extant Tamil grammar.
o Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) and Pattupattu (Ten Idylls): Collections of poems.
o Silappadikaram and Manimekalai: The two famous
Tamil epics.
4. Key
Developments of the Period
A. Economic Developments
·
Prosperous Trade:
o Silk Route: The Kushanas controlled
the Silk Route, which brought immense wealth and facilitated trade between
China, India, and the Roman Empire.
o Indian Exports: Pepper, spices,
pearls, ivory, silk, and precious stones.
o Ports: Important ports
like Bharuch
(Barygaza) and Arikamedu thrived.
·
Coinage: Extensive use of gold, silver, and copper coins by various
dynasties.
B. Religious Developments
·
Buddhism: Division into Mahayana (idol
worship, Bodhisattva ideal) and Hinayana.
·
Bhakti Movement: The beginnings of the Bhakti cult, centered around the
worship of deities like Vasudeva
Krishna, can be traced to this period.
·
Hinduism: The Bhagavad
Gita was composed during this period. The concept of Trimurti (Brahma,
Vishnu, Shiva) gained ground.
C. Art and Architecture
·
Gandhara School: Northwest India. Influenced by Greek (Hellenistic) styles.
Use of grey/bluish-grey stone. Themes were predominantly Buddhist. (e.g.,
Bamiyan Buddhas).
·
Mathura School: Central India. Used spotted red sandstone. Produced images
of Buddha, Jain Tirthankaras, and Hindu deities like Vishnu and Shiva.
·
Amaravati School: In the Satavahana region (Andhra). Known for its intricate
narrative sculptures on the stupas, using white marble.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Dynasty/Rule |
Important Rulers |
Capital |
Key Contributions |
|
Shunga |
Pushyamitra Shunga |
Pataliputra/Vidisha |
Revival of Brahmanism, Patronage of Art |
|
Indo-Greeks |
Menander |
Taxila |
First Gold Coins, Gandhara Art,
Milinda Panho |
|
Shakas |
Rudradaman I |
Ujjain |
Junagadh Inscription (1st major
Sanskrit inscription) |
|
Kushanas |
Kanishka |
Peshawar/Mathura |
Saka Era (78 AD), 4th Buddhist
Council, Gandhara Art |
|
Satavahanas |
Gautamiputra Satakarni |
Pratishthana |
Deccan power, Land Grants,
Amaravati Stupa |
|
Sangam Kingdoms |
Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas |
Puhar, Vanji, Madurai |
Sangam Literature (Tamil) |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Foreign Rulers' Contributions: Focus on what
each foreign dynasty introduced—Indo-Greeks
(coins), Shakas
(Kshatrapa system), Kushanas
(Saka Era, Mahayana Buddhism).
2.
Kanishka is Key: His reign is a potential short-note question. Remember the
Saka Era, the Fourth Buddhist Council, and his patronage of art and learning.
3.
Satavahanas and Land Grants: They were the
pioneers of the land grant system, which had long-term socio-economic
implications.
4.
Art Schools: Be clear on the distinctions between the Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati schools
of art.
5.
Important Inscriptions: Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman I (first
Sanskrit inscription) and the Nasik
Inscription of Gautami Balasri.
6.
Sangam Age: Remember the three kingdoms and the names of the major
literary works (Tolkappiyam, Silappadikaram).
7. The
Gupta Empire (c. 320 AD – 550 AD)
Known as the "Golden Age of India".
·
Founder: Sri
Gupta.
·
Important Rulers:
o Chandragupta I: Started the Gupta Era (320
AD).
o Samudragupta: Called the 'Napoleon of India' by
historian V.A. Smith. His achievements are recorded on the Allahabad Pillar Inscription by Harisena.
o Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya): The most powerful
Gupta ruler. His court had Navratnas including Kalidasa. Chinese
traveler Fa-Hien visited
India during his reign.
·
Administration: Less centralized than Mauryas. Rise of feudatory chiefs.
·
Cultural Developments:
o Literature: Kalidasa
(Shakuntala, Meghaduta), Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa).
o Science: Aryabhata (Astronomy,
gave concept of zero), Varahamihira (Brihat
Samhita), Brahmagupta (Mathematics).
o Art & Architecture: Nalanda University was
established. Ajanta
& Ellora Caves (mostly during post-Gupta Vakatakas).
Development of Gupta
Temple Architecture (Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh).
The Gupta
Empire: An Overview
The Gupta Empire marked the culmination of
Indian cultural, scientific, and artistic achievements in the ancient period.
After the fragmentation of the Post-Mauryan period, the Guptas established a
powerful and centralized empire, fostering an environment where learning and
creativity flourished.
1. Founding
and Sources
·
Founder: Sri
Gupta – The dynasty is named after him, but the real
founder of the empire was Chandragupta
I.
·
Sources:
o Inscriptions: Allahabad Pillar
Inscription (by Harisena), Bhitari Pillar Inscription, Udayagiri Cave
Inscriptions.
o Literary Works: Kalidasa's Abhijnanasakuntalam,
Ritusamhara; Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa; Vishnu Sharma's Panchatantra.
o Accounts of Foreign
Travelers: Fa-Hien (Faxian),
a Chinese Buddhist monk, visited India during Chandragupta II's reign and left
a detailed account of the socio-religious life.
2.
Important Rulers of the Gupta Dynasty
A. Chandragupta I (c. 319/320 – 335/350 CE)
·
The Real Founder: He was the first Gupta ruler to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja (King
of Kings).
·
Strategic Alliance: His marriage to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi
princess, was a masterstroke. It brought the power and prestige of the
Lichchhavi clan (once part of the Vajji confederacy) to the Guptas,
consolidating their power in Magadha.
·
Gupta Era: He started the Gupta
Era in 319/320
CE, which marked the beginning of the Gupta calendar.
B. Samudragupta (c. 335/350 – 375 CE)
·
The "Napoleon of India": Historian V.A.
Smith gave him this title for his extensive military campaigns.
·
Source of Information: His military conquests are glorified
in the Allahabad
Pillar Inscription (Prayag Prashasti), composed by his
court poet Harisena.
·
Policy of Conquest: The inscription describes four
different types of policies:
1.
Digvijaya (Northern Campaign): Annexed 9
kingdoms in the Ganga valley.
2.
Dakshinapatha (Southern Campaign): Defeated 12 South
Indian kings but followed a policy of "Dharma-Vijaya" – he
released them and reinstated them as tributary kings.
3.
Frontier Kingdoms: Subdued 5 frontier kingdoms and made them pay taxes.
4.
Tribal States: Subdued forest tribes.
·
Talent: He was also a patron of the arts and is depicted on coins
playing the Veena.
C. Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (c. 375 – 415 CE)
·
The Peak of the Empire: Also known as Vikramaditya ("Sun
of Valour"), his reign is considered the zenith of the Gupta Empire.
·
Expansion: To strengthen his position in Western India, he married
his daughter Prabhavati
Gupta to the Vakataka king Rudrasena II. After Rudrasena's
death, as regent, she facilitated Gupta influence in the Deccan.
·
Defeat of the Shakas: He defeated the Shaka Kshatrapa
ruler of Malwa, Gujarat, and Saurashtra, gaining access to the prosperous ports
of the western coast, like Bharuch.
·
Court of Navratnas: His court was adorned by nine
eminent scholars, the Navratnas,
including Kalidasa and Amarasimha (author
of Amarakosha).
·
Chinese Traveler: Fa-Hien visited
India during his reign, recording a peaceful and prosperous society.
D. Later Rulers and Decline
·
Kumaragupta I (c. 415 – 455 CE): He maintained the
vast empire. Founded the Nalanda
University.
·
Skandagupta (c. 455 – 467 CE): The last great
Gupta ruler. He successfully repulsed a major invasion by the Hunas (Huns).
However, the war drained the treasury and weakened the empire.
·
Decline: After Skandagupta, weak successors, continuous Hun
invasions, the rise of feudatories (like the Pushyabhutis), and financial
exhaustion led to the disintegration of the empire by the mid-6th century CE.
3.
Administration of the Gupta Empire
The Gupta administration was less
centralized than the Mauryan.
·
King: The central figure, often with titles like Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka.
·
Provinces: The empire was divided into Bhuktis (provinces),
governed by Uparikas.
·
Districts: Bhuktis were
divided into Vishayas (districts),
headed by Vishayapatis.
·
Villages: The village was the basic unit, headed by a Gramika.
·
Feudatory System: The Guptas granted land to officers and priests, creating
a class of feudal chiefs (Samantas)
who later became powerful and asserted independence.
4. Society
and Economy
·
Society: The caste
system became more rigid. The practice of untouchability began.
However, the status of women declined further with the rise of practices
like Sati and
child marriage.
·
Economy:
o Agriculture: Remained the
backbone. Land grants to Brahmins (Agraharas)
became common.
o Trade: Thriving internal
and external trade. The Gupta period saw a peak in trade with Southeast Asia.
Exports included spices, pearls, and textiles.
o Coinage: Issued the largest number of gold coins called Dinara. They also
issued silver and copper coins. The gold coins, depicting the kings in various
poses, are known for their artistic excellence.
5. Cultural
and Scientific Achievements (The "Golden Age")
This is a high-yield topic.
A. Literature
·
Sanskrit: Became the court language and reached its pinnacle.
o Kalidasa: Wrote Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava.
o Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa (a
political drama).
o Sudraka: Mrichchhakatika (The
Little Clay Cart).
o Vishnu Sharma: Panchatantra.
B. Science and Technology
·
Aryabhata: Wrote Aryabhatiya.
He postulated that the earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun.
He gave the value of Pi
(π) and introduced the concept of zero.
·
Varahamihira: Wrote Brihat
Samhita, an encyclopedia on astronomy, astrology, and geography.
·
Sushruta: Sushruta
Samhita – a foundational text of surgery and medicine.
·
Metallurgy: The Iron
Pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi), from the time of Chandragupta II,
is a marvel of metallurgy. It has not rusted for over 1600 years.
C. Art and Architecture
·
Temple Architecture: The basic features of the Nagara style of
temple architecture emerged.
o Dashavatara Temple
(Deogarh, UP): A classic example of early Gupta temple architecture.
o Bhitargaon Temple (UP): A terracotta
temple.
·
Sculpture: The Sarnath
School of Art developed, known for its graceful,
transparent drapery and spiritual serenity. The seated Buddha in the
"Teaching" or "Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana" mudra is a
masterpiece.
·
Paintings: The world-famous Ajanta Caves (mostly Caves 16, 17,
1, and 2) were painted during the Gupta period. They depict Jataka tales and
scenes from Buddha's life.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Aspect |
Key Details |
|
Founder of Empire |
Chandragupta I (started
Gupta Era: 319-320 CE) |
|
Greatest Ruler |
Chandragupta II
(Vikramaditya) |
|
"Napoleon of
India" |
Samudragupta (Allahabad
Pillar Inscription by Harisena) |
|
Capital |
Pataliputra |
|
Chinese Traveler |
Fa-Hien (visited
during Chandragupta II's reign) |
|
Important
Inscription |
Allahabad Pillar
Inscription (Prayag Prashasti) |
|
Science |
Aryabhata (Zero,
Pi), Varahamihira (Brihat
Samhita) |
|
Literature |
Kalidasa (Abhijnanasakuntalam,
Meghaduta) |
|
Art |
Ajanta Paintings, Sarnath School of Sculpture |
|
Architecture |
Dashavatara Temple
(Deogarh), Nalanda University |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Golden Age Concept: Understand why it's called the
Golden Age—focus on literature
(Kalidasa), science (Aryabhata), and art (Ajanta).
2.
Ruler-Specific Achievements:
o Chandragupta I: Marriage
alliance, start of Gupta Era.
o Samudragupta: Military
conquests (Allahabad Pillar Inscription).
o Chandragupta II: Defeat of Shakas,
Navratnas, Fa-Hien's visit.
o Skandagupta: Repelled the
Hunas.
3.
Scientific Contributions: Aryabhata's work on zero and the
earth's rotation is fundamental.
4.
Art & Architecture: Be able to distinguish the Gupta Sculptural Style (Sarnath) from
the earlier Mathura and Gandhara styles.
5.
Decline: The role of the Huna invasions and the feudal system are
key reasons for the collapse.
8.
Post-Gupta / Vardhana Empire (c. 550 AD – 750 AD)
·
Harshavardhana (606 – 647 AD):
o Last Hindu king of
North India before the Muslim invasions.
o Capital: Kannauj.
o His biography Harshacharita was
written by Banabhatta.
o Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited
his court.
o He organized religious
assemblies at Kannauj and Prayag.
·
Southern Kingdoms:
o Chalukyas of Badami: Pulakeshin II
(defeated Harsha).
o Pallavas of Kanchi: Narasimhavarman I
(built shore temples of Mahabalipuram).
o The Aihole Inscription by
Ravikirti is an important source for Chalukyan history.
Post-Gupta
/ Vardhana Empire Period
This era marks the transition from ancient
to early medieval India. Following the collapse of the Gupta Empire, political
unity gave way to regional kingdoms. The most significant power in North India
during this period was the Vardhana
Empire of Harsha, while the Deccan and South saw the rise of
other powerful dynasties.
1. Political
Landscape: An Overview
The period was characterized by the
emergence of several independent kingdoms, often warring with each other for
supremacy.
A. The Maukharis (c. 550 – 606 CE)
·
Region: Initially ruled from Kannauj (which replaced Pataliputra
as the political center of North India).
·
Significance: They were the immediate predecessors of Harsha in Kannauj.
The decline of the Guptas allowed the Maukharis to establish their power in the
Ganga valley.
B. The Pushyabhuti/Vardhana Dynasty (c. 500 – 647 CE)
·
Region: Thanesar (modern
Haryana).
·
Founder: Prabhakaravardhana.
·
Important Rulers:
o Prabhakaravardhana: Adopted the
title Maharajadhiraja.
He fought against the Hunas and the Gurjaras.
o Rajyavardhana: The eldest son,
who was treacherously killed by Shashanka,
the King of Gauda (Bengal).
o Harshavardhana
(Harsha): The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty and the last
great Hindu emperor of ancient India.
2.
Harshavardhana (c. 606 – 647 CE)
Harsha's reign is the most well-documented
part of this period, thanks to his court poet and the account of a Chinese
traveler.
A. Ascension and Expansion
·
Accession: He ascended the throne at age 16 after the death of his
brother, Rajyavardhana.
·
Consolidation of Power: He unified the two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj (after
his brother-in-law, the Maukhari king, was killed). Kannauj became his new
capital.
·
Military Campaigns: Harsha aimed to become the lord of
the whole of North India (Sakalottarapathanatha).
o He fought against Shashanka of Gauda (Bengal)
and eventually conquered Magadha and parts of Bengal.
o He extended his empire
from Punjab to Bengal and from the Himalayas to the Narmada river.
o Setback in the Deccan: His southward
expansion was halted by the Chalukya
king Pulakeshin II at the banks of the Narmada river (c.
618-619 CE), as documented in the Aihole
Inscription.
B. Administration
·
Harsha's administration was largely feudal. He ruled with a
loose control over his empire, which was divided into many feudatory states.
·
Officials were often paid by land grants (Bhogas).
·
The administration was benevolent but the law and order
situation was not as secure as in Gupta times.
C. Religion and Patronage
·
Personal Faith: Harsha was initially a devotee of Shiva but later became a
patron of Mahayana Buddhism. He prohibited the consumption of meat in his
kingdom.
·
Religious Assemblies: He organized grand religious
assemblies:
o At Kannauj: A large
assembly was held to honour Hiuen Tsang, where Mahayana doctrines were
promoted.
o At Prayag (Allahabad):
Held a spectacular quinquennial assembly called the Mahamoksha Parishad.
He distributed his accumulated wealth as charity every five years.
D. Sources of Information
·
Harshacharita: A biography of Harsha written by his court poet, Banabhatta. It is the
first historical biography in Sanskrit.
·
Travel Accounts: Hiuen
Tsang (Xuanzang), a Chinese Buddhist monk, spent about 8 years
(c. 630-643 CE) in India during Harsha's reign. His work, Si-Yu-Ki (Records of the Western World), provides invaluable
data on the political, social, and economic conditions of the time.
·
Inscriptions: The Madhuban and Banskhera inscriptions provide
details of Harsha's reign and confirm that he was a patron of learning.
3. Other
Contemporary Kingdoms
While Harsha ruled the north, other
powerful dynasties flourished elsewhere.
A. Chalukyas of Badami (c. 543 – 753 CE) - Deccan
·
Important Ruler: Pulakeshin
II (c. 610–642 CE).
·
Achievements:
o His victory over Harsha
is recorded in the Aihole
Inscription by his court poet, Ravikirti.
o He also defeated the
Pallavas of Kanchi.
·
Capital: Vatapi
(Badami) in Karnataka.
·
Architecture: Developed the Vesara
style of temple architecture. The rock-cut cave temples of
Badami and the temples at Aihole and Pattadakal are famous.
B. Pallavas of Kanchi (c. 275 – 897 CE) - South
·
Important Ruler: Narasimhavarman
I (c. 630–668 CE), also known as Mamalla ("Great
Wrestler").
·
Achievements:
o He defeated Pulakeshin
II and captured Vatapi, earning the title Vatapikonda.
·
Architecture: They were great patrons of art. The Dravida style of
temple architecture evolved under them.
o Monolithic Rathas and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) were
built during their reign.
C. The Tripartite Struggle
·
Although it peaked after the 8th century, the seeds for
the tripartite
struggle between the Palas (Bengal), the Pratiharas (Rajasthan), and the
Rashtrakutas (Deccan) for control of Kannauj were sown in
this period after Harsha's death.
4. Society,
Economy, and Culture
·
Society: The caste system became more rigid. The status of women
continued to decline. The practice of Sati was
prevalent, especially in royal families.
·
Economy:
o Decline of Trade: There was a
significant decline in trade and commerce, especially with the Roman Empire.
This led to a decrease in the use of coins and a trend towards a self-sufficient village economy
(manorial economy).
o Land Grants: The practice of
granting land to Brahmins and officials became more common, leading to the
growth of feudalism.
·
Education: Nalanda
University was at its peak during Harsha's time. Hiuen
Tsang studied there and provided a glowing account of its high standards and
large library.
5. Decline
·
With no heir, Harsha's empire disintegrated immediately after
his death in 647 CE.
·
His minister, Arunashva,
usurped the throne, but the empire quickly broke up into small states, leading
to a political vacuum in North India.
·
This vacuum was eventually filled by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, and
Rashtrakutas.
Summary
Table for Quick Revision
|
Aspect |
Key Details |
|
Main Dynasty |
Pushyabhuti/Vardhana
Dynasty |
|
Greatest Ruler |
Harshavardhana
(606-647 CE) |
|
Capital |
Kannauj (Shifted
from Thanesar) |
|
Important Sources |
Harshacharita
(Banabhatta), Si-Yu-Ki (Hiuen Tsang) |
|
Major Event |
Defeat by
Pulakeshin II (Chalukya) at Narmada |
|
Religious Assembly |
Mahamoksha
Parishad at
Prayag |
|
Contemporary
Dynasties |
Chalukyas of
Badami (Pulakeshin
II), Pallavas of
Kanchi (Narasimhavarman I) |
|
Significance |
End of Ancient
Period,
beginning of early medieval feudalism in India. |
Crucial
Exam-Oriented Points
1.
Harsha as the Last Empire Builder: He was the last
ruler to hold a large empire in North India before the Islamic invasions.
2.
Importance of Hiuen Tsang: His account is
the primary source for Harsha's reign and provides a "mirror" of
7th-century India. Note his observations on society, religion, and Nalanda.
3.
Battle with Pulakeshin II: This event is
crucial as it defined the boundary between North and South Indian powers.
The Aihole
Inscription is the key source from the Chalukyan side.
4.
Transition to Feudalism: Understand that this period marks
the beginning of Indian feudalism, characterized by land grants and a
decentralized political structure.
5.
Cultural Centres: Remember the architectural contributions of the Chalukyas
(Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal) and the Pallavas (Mahabalipuram).
Important
Topics for Exam Preparation
1.
Indus Valley Civilization: Town Planning,
Important Sites, Script, Religion, Decline.
2.
Vedic Literature: Names of Vedas and their associated details, Upanishads.
3.
Buddhism & Jainism: Founders, Key Teachings, Councils,
Sects.
4.
Mauryan Empire: Ashoka's Edicts, Dhamma, Administration, Sources
(Arthashastra, Indica).
5.
Gupta Empire: Rulers and their achievements, Cultural & Scientific
developments (Aryabhata, Kalidasa).
6.
Foreign Invaders: Kushanas (Kanishka), Shakas.
7.
Important Books & Authors: (e.g.,
Arthashastra - Kautilya, Harshacharita - Banabhatta).
8.
Travelers: Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang.
9.
Chronology of Dynasties.
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